*B    as?   flPA 


!  .  GREENE'S  FIKSi  lcooQNS  IN  GRAMMAR. 


FIRST  LESSONS  IN  GRAMMAR, 


BASED    UPON    TUTS 


CONSTRUCTION  ANtf  ANALYSIS  Of  SjENTEKCES ; 


DBSIGN^T^Vs   AN   INTRODUCTION    TO    THE 


Dj±S   AN   I 


"ANALYSIS  OF  SENTENCES." 


BY   SAMUEL    S.   GJF5.EENE,   A.M. 

.PRINCIPAL   OF   THE     PHILLIPS  "GRAMMAR     SCPOOL,    BOSTON. 


PHILADELPHIA: 
THOMAS,  COWPERTHWAIT  &  CO. 

-•New  York,  Geo.  F.  Cootedge  61  Brother ;— Boston,  Phillipsf-Sampson  6c  Co.,  B.  B.  Mussey 
'■■>. ;— Baltimore,  Cushing  6t  Brother;— Charleston,  S.  C.McCarter  <fc  Allen;— 
Louisville,  Ky.,  Morton  6i   Griswold,  Beck  with   &   Morton;  —  St.  Louis. 
Fisher  6c  Bennett,  Wm.  D.  .Skillman,  Shultz  <fc  Eberlin;  —  Cinein 
J.  F.  Desilver ;— Nashville,  V/hf.  T.  Berry,  Chas.  W, 
Memphis,  C.  C,  Cleaves;  —  Lexington,  C.  S.  Bodley  &  ■'■■■. 
Macon,  Geo.,  J.  M.  Board  man. 


£fc~ 


«%0 


REESE    LIBRARY 


<s¥ 


NIVERSITY   OF   CALIFORNIA. 

Receitvd-.  .iStiQjOUJ    1S8 ^ 

Accessions  Nd&S&SfZJL     "&(elf  No...^O^ 


— 7- 


t- 


Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 

in  2007  with  funding  from 

Microsoft  Corporation 


http://www.archive.org/details/firstlessonsingrOOgreerich 


GREENE'S  FIRST  LESSONS  IN  GRAMMAR. 


FIRST  LESSONS  IN  GRAMMAR, 


BASED    UPON    THB 


CONSTRUCTION  AND  ANALYSIS  OF  SENTENCES; 


DESIGNED   AS  AN  INTRODUCTION  TO  THE 


'ANALYSIS  OP  SENTENCES." 


By  SAMUEL   S.   GREENE,  A.  M. 

fUPERINTENDENT  OF  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS,  PROVIDENCE,  AND  PROFESSOR 
OF  THE  NORMAL  DEPARTMENT  OF  BROWN  UNC^RSITY. 


•yj 


03r     *tb> 

PHILADELPHIA: 
THOMAS,  COWPERTHWA1T  &  CO. 

Sf^w  York,  Geo.  F.  Cooledge  <fe  Brother ;— Boston,  Pliillips,  Sampson  <fe  Co.,  B.  B.  Mussey 


<k  Co. ;— Baltimore,  Cushing  &  Brother ;— Charleston,  S.  C.McCarter  <fc  Allen  ;- 

Vouisville,  Ky.,  Morton  &  Griswold,  Beckwith   &  Morton:  —  St.  Louis, 

Fisher  &  Bennett,  Wm.  D.  Skillman,  Shultz  &  Eberlin ;  —  Cincinnati, 

J    F.  Deader;  —  Nashville,  Wm.  T.  Berry,  Chas.  W.  Smith;  — 

Men  phis,  U  C.  Cleaves ;  —  Lexington,  C.  S.  Bodley  &  C«. ;  — 

Macon.  Gso.,   J.  M    B«ardmua. 


Entered  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1R48. 

BY  SAMUEL  S.   GREENE. 

in  the  Clerk's  Office  of  the  District  Court  of  thu  District  of  Massacnusetts. 


2-i^ffS' 


PRINTED  BY  SMITH  &  PETERS, 
Franklin  Buildings,  Sixth  Street  below  Arch,  Philadelphia. 


PREFACE. 


The  following  Lessons  are  designed  as  an  intro- 
duction to  a  larger  work,  on  the  "Analysis  of  Sen- 
tences." The  author  has  endeavored  to  simplify  the 
system,  without  depriving  it  of  any  of  its  essential 
characteristics, — to  reduce  it,  and  yet  retain  its  spirit 
In  thus  adapting  it  to  the  capacity  of  beginners,  he 
has  avoided  repeated  and  unnecessary  explanation, 
tedious  alike  to  the  teacher  and  pupil,  and,  in  its  stead, 
has  introduced  copious  exercises,  intended  to  elucidate 
the  parts  to  be  learned.  A  single  model  accompanies 
the  exercises,  wherever  it  is  necessary,  and  to  prevent 
confusion,  all  superfluous  or  unexplained  elements  are 
avoided ;  so  that  the  learner  has  before  him,  at  any 
stage  of  his  progress,  but  a  single  unknown  element. 
The  advantage  of  thus  bringing  forward  only  one 
thing  at  a  time,  every  experienced  teacher  will  readily 
appreciate.  With  beginners,  success  in  the  use  of 
these  Lessons  will  depend,  in  no  small  degree,  upon  a 
faitliful  ^performance  of  the  exercises.  They  are  to 
grammar  what  problems  or  questions  are  to  arithmetic ; 
and,  it  is  believed,  that  children  perceive  grammatical 
as  well  as  arithmetical  relations  more  easily  from  what 


4  PREFACE. 

they  have  to  perform,  than  from  what  they  have  to 
commit  to  memory. 

In  some  of  the  exercises  all  the  elements  are  given, 
to  be  pointed  out  and  explained ;  in  others,  some  are 
given  and  others  required ;  in  others,  none  are  given 
and  all  are  required ;  while  in  others  still,  certain 
elements  are  given  in  one  form,  to  be  changed  to 
equivalent  ones  in  another  form. 

The  work  is  divided  into  two  parts.  Part  I.  is 
devoted  to  the  formation  of  words ;  and  contains  the 
principles  of  orthography  and  etymology.  Part  II. 
is  occupied  with  the  formation  of  sentences,  and  con- 
tains Rules  for  construction,  and  Models  for  analyzing 
and  parsing,  sufficient  to  guide  the  learner  in  all  ordi- 
nary cases.  It  is  to  this  part  particularly  that  the 
author  would  invite  attention.  The  peculiar  feature 
of  the  work  consists  in  unfolding  the  principles  of 
grammar  in  connection  with  the  construction  and 
analysis  of  sentences.  The  sentence  is  brought  for- 
ward, at  first,  in  its  simplest  state.  The  learner  is 
next  made  to  witness  its  growth  by  the  addition  of 
words,  phrases,  and  clauses.  It  is  treated  of  through- 
out as  consisting  of  elements  both  essential  and  subor- 
dinate. The  elements  are  first  introduced  in  the 
simplest  form  of  single  words.  They  next  appear 
as  they  exist  in  the  more  expanded  state  of  phrases; 
and  farther  on,  in  the  still  more  expanded  *state  of 
clauses.  So  that  the  pupil,  who  in  the  first  place 
saw  the  noun,  the  adjective,  and  the  adverb,  occu- 
pying important  positions  in  the  sentence,  next  sees 
these  same  parts  of  speech,  having  grown  up  into 


PREFACE.  5 

phrases  or  clauses,  still  enter  into  the  structure  of  the 
sentence  in  the  same  relations  as  before.  Every 
sentence  has  a  meaning  and  a  form,  —  a  soul  and  a 

t$  body ;  the  form  may  change,  while  the  meaning  may 
remain  unaltered ;  hence,  in  studying  a  sentence,  both 
the  thought  and  mode  of  expression  should  be  exam- 
ined.     The  form   of  a  sentence   changes   when  its 

*  elements  change.  Thus,  in  the  sentence,  "An  indus- 
trious man  will  gain  a  competence,"  industrious  desig- 
nates the  man  who  will  gain  a  competence.  But  what 
industrious  does  in  this  sentence,  of  industry,  or  who 
is  industrious,  does  in  the  following  sentences:  "A 
man  of  industry  will  gain  a  competence ; "  "A  man 
who  is  industrious,  will  gain  a  competence."  And  yet 
there  is  no  difference  in  the  meaning  of  these  three 
sentences.  The  facilities  which  are  thus  afforded  for 
an  interchange  of  equivalent  words,  phrases,  or  clauses, 
it  is  believed,  have  been  too  much  overlooked  in 
treatises  on  the  English  language.  As  soon,  then,  as 
the  pupil  becomes  familiar  with  the  distinctive  features 
of  these  three  classes  of  the  elements,  he  should  have 
frequent  exercises  on  equivalents. 

To  these  peculiarities  the  author  would  direct  par- 
ticular attention.  Experience  has  fully  proved,  that 
grammar  taught  in  this  manner  becomes  a  thought- 
stirring,  a  profitable,  and  a  deeply  interesting  study. 
Those  who  seek  for  a  more  extended  treatise  on  the 
analysis  of  the  language,  are  referred  to  the  author's 
larger  work. 

SAMUEL  S.  GREENE. 
BOSTON,  July,  1848. 


SUGGESTIONS    TO    TEACHERS. 

As  the  work  is,  in  many  material  respects,  different  from  the 
common  treatises  on  Grammar,  the  author  may  be  pardoned  for 
making  a  few  suggestions  in  regard  to  the  manner  of  using  it. 

1.  Let  the  pupil  learn  the  first  ten  Lessons  in  the  order  in  which 
they  are  arranged,  paying  particular  attention  to  the  Exercises. 

2.  After  having  learned  the  parts  of  speech  in  Lesson  X.,  he 
should  commence  Lesson  XXV.  p.  81,  and  associate  the  remaining 
Lessons  of  Part  I.  with  the  corresponding  Lessons  of  Part  II. 

3.  As  the  learner  commences  the  construction  of  sentences,  it  is 
indispensable,  if  he  is  a  beginner,  and  very  young,  that  he  should 
receive  much  oral  instruction  on  the  blackboard.  Let  the  teacher 
propose  subjects,  for  example,  and  require  of  the  class  appropriate 
predicates  to  be  given  orally  by  the  pupils. 

4.  In  order  to  ensure  success,  the  habit  of  regarding  a  sentence 
as  a  picture  of  some  scene,  transaction,  or  event,  must  be  earlv 
established.  When  the  pupil  says,  "  The  waves  dash"  he  should 
be  taught  to  form  in  his  mind  a  picture  of  waves  in  motion.  In 
other  words,  he  should  be  taught  to  bring  the  whole  scene  to  hi:* 
mind  as  if  it  were  a  reality.  In  this  way,  only,  the  full  force  of  the 
terms  modify,  limit,  and  restrict,  can  be  understood. 

5.  In  adding  words  to  the  subject  and  predicate,  great  care  should 
be  taken  to  explain  their  modifying  effects  ;  show  in  what  way  the 
added  word,  phrase,  or  clause,  modifies  the  picture  which  the  learner 
is  forming  in  his  mind.     See  introduction,  p.  9. 

6.  As  soon  as  the  learner  has  mastered  the  classified  examples 
in  the  Exercises,  he  should  commence  analyzing  promiscuous 
examples  in  his  reading  lessons.  Let  him  be  careful  to  note  the 
distinction  between  simple,  complex,  and  compound  elements. 

7.  To  test  the  progress  of  a  class,  it  is  a  good  exercise  for  the 
teacher  to  describe  the  elements  of  a  sentence,  requiring  the  class 
to  recollect  the  description.  Then  let  the  teacher  give  the  page  of 
the  class  book  from  which  it  was  selected,  leaving  the  class  to  hunt 
it  out  from  their  recollection  of  its  elements.  Another  valuable 
exercise  consists  in  giving,  as  above,  the  description  of  a  sentence 
which  is  to  be  written  on  the  slate,  by  each  of  the  class. 

8.  The  pupil  is  now  supposed  to  have  mastered  the  forms  or  the 
materials  of  which  a  sentence  is  made.  Let  him  next  re-arrange  oi 
reconstruct  these  materials  so  as  to  express  his  thoughts  in  the  mosf 
agreeable  and  forcible  manner. 


CONTENTS. 


PART    I. 

lessor.  page. 

Introduction, 9 

I.    Elementary  Sounds, 13 

II.    Letters, 15 

III.  United  Letters, 17 

IV.  Syllables, 18 

V.    Words  used  to  represent  Sound, 20 

DERIVATION   AND    COMPOSITION    OP    WORDS. 

VI.    Words  classified  according  to  their  Formation,  •  •  •  22 

VII.    Prefixes, 24 

VIII.    Suffixes, 28 

IX.    List  of  the  principal  Suffixes, *  31 

PARTS    OP    SPEECH  — INFLECTION. 
X.    Words  Classified  according  to  their  Meaning  and 

Use, 34 

XL   Nouns, • 36 

,XII.    Pronouns, 37 

XIII.  Number  of  the  Noun  or  Pronoun,* 39 

XIV.  Gender  of  the  Noun  or  Pronoun,  •  •  •  • 41 

XV.    Person  of  the  Noun  or  Pronoun, 43 

XVI.    The  Case  of  the  "Noun  or  Pronoun, 44 

XVII     Adjective  Words, 47 

XVIII.    Classes  of  Verbs, 50 

XIX.    Number,  Person,  and  Voice  of  the  Verb, 58 

XX.    Mode  of  the  Verb, 59 

XXI.    Tense  of  the  Verb, • 62 

XXII.    Adverbs, 75 

XXIII.  Prepositions, 77 

XXIV.  Interrogatives  and  Connectives, *8 


CONTENTS. 


PART   II. 

LESSOlf.  PAOK. 

XXV.    Definitions, 81 

XXVI.    Objects,  or  Things,  and  their  Attributes, ....    82 
XXVII.    Assumed  and  Predicated  Attributes, 85 

SIMPLE   SENTENCES. 

XXVIII.  The  Proposition  or  Simple  Sentence, 87 

XXIX.  The  Subject  modified  by  Inflection, 91 

XXX.  The  Predicate  modified  by  Inflection, 95 

XXXI.  Classes  of  Sentences, 105 

XXXII.  The  subject  modified  by  single  Words, 106 

XXXIIL  The  Predicate  modified  by  single  Words, 114 

XXXIV.  Interjections,  and  the  Case  Independent, ....  119 

XXXV.  Complex  and  Compound  Elements, 120 

XXXVI.  The  Subject  modified  by  Phrases, 127 

XXXVII.  The  Predicate  modified  by  Phrases, 130 

XXXVIII.  Complex  and  Compound  Phrases, 135 

XXXIX.  Classes  of  Interrogative  Sentences, 138 

COMPLEX   SENTENCES. 

XL.    The  Subject  modified  by  Clauses, 140 

XLI.    The  Predicate' modified  by  Clauses, 145 

XLII.    Complex  and  Compound  Elements  containing 

Clauses, 155 

XLIII.    Phrases  and  Clauses  used  as  the  Subject  or 

Predicate, 157 

COMPOUND   SENTENCES. 

XLTV.    Classes  of  Coordinate  Clauses, 162 

PROSODY. 

XLV.    Different  kinds  of  Verse, 164 

XLVE.    Punctuation, 168 

XLVII.    Rules,  —  Examples  to  be  corrected, 173 

XLVCH.    Various  peculiarities  and  idioms, 181 


>v       01-    THE 


(VHIVER! 
INTRODUCTION. 


To  tell  others  what  we  think,  what  we  feel,  or  what 
we  desire,  we  have  only  to  speak  or  write  a  certain 
collection  of  words. 

Examples. 

"  The  rose  is  a  beautiful  flower." 
*  The  good  child  loves  its  parents." 
"  Sarah  wishes  to  learn  music." 
But  it  must  not  be  understood  that  every  collection 

of  words  will  express  our  thoughts,  feelings,  or  desires. 
Thus,  if  we  should  use  the  words,  — 

"  Being  a  beautiful  flower," 

"  The  good  child  loving  its  parents," 

"  Sarah  wishing  to  learn  music," — we  should  feel 

that  something  more  was  needed  to  make  a  statement. 

Although  nothing  is  stated  in  either  of  the  last  ex 
amples,  containing  from  four  to  six  words  each,  yet 


10  INTRODUCTION. 

we  can  make  a  statement  with  only  two  words.    Thus, 

(1.)  Horses  ran. 

But  this  assertion  is  very  indefinite ;  it  does  not  tell 
how  many  horses,  what  kind  of  horses,  —  nor  how 
they  ran,  where  they  ran,  when  thsy  ran.  or  why  the) 
ran. 

Let  us  observe  how  other  words  may  be' added  to 
these  two,  to  answer  such  inquiries.  Thus,  How 
many  horses  ran  ? 

(  2.)     TWO  HORSES  RAN. 

In  number  (1.)  the  assertion  would  be  true  of  any 
number  of  horses,  but  in  (  2.)  it  is  confined  to  two 
horses.     What  kind  of  horses  were  they  ? 

(3.)  Two  white  horses  ran. 

We  must  now  think  of  only  two  horses,  and  they 
must  be  white.     In  what  condition  were  they  ? 

( 4.)  Two  white  horses  which  were  attached  to  a 
coach,  RAN. 

We  have  now  excluded  from  the  statement  any 
number  of  horses  above  two,  also,  all  horses  except 
white  ones,  and  no  two  white  horses  can  be  taken  into 
the  account  unless  they  are  attached  to  a  coach.  ILrw 
did  these  two,  white,  harnessed  horses  run  ? 

(  5.)  Two  white  horses  which  were  attached  to  a 
coach,  ran  furiously. 

This  addition  defines  exactly  the  manner  of  running. 
Where  did  they  run  ? 

(  6.)  Two  white  horses  which  were  attached  to  a 
coach,  ran  furiously  through  the  streets  of  Boston. 


JFIVIESIT12 
$&£IE      11 


INTRODUCTION 

This  group  of  words  lays  the  scene  of  the  event  in 
Boston.     Still  nothing  shows  the  time  of  the  event. 

(  7.)  Two  white  horses  which  were  attached  to  a 
coach,  ran  furiously  through  the  streets  of  Boston, 
one  morning  in  June. 

Let  us  now  add  something  to  show  the  cause  of  their 
running. 

(  8.)  Two  white  horses  which  were  attached  to  a 
coach,  ran  furiously  through  the  streets  of  Boston, 
one  morning  in  June,  because  they  were  frightened  by 
the  crash  of  some  falling  timbers. 

Thus,  by  seven  successive  additions,  each  of  which 
has  given  a  peculiar  shading  to  the  picture,  we  have  a 
complete  statement  of  an  event. 

The  most  remarkable  feature  in  this  collection  is, 
that  the  two  words,  printed  in  capitals,  which  appeared 
alone  at  the  beginning,  are  the  essential  parts  on  which 
all  the  other  words  depend.  If  either  should  be  re- 
moved, nothing  would  be  asserted. 

Each  of  the  above  eight  examples  is  called  a  sen 
tence,  because  it  expresses  a  thought.  The  first  con- 
tains only  the  two  essential  parts,  and  is  vague  and 
incomplete  ;  while  the  last  contains  not  only  these 
parts  but  all  the  additions  made  to  them,  and  is  definite 
and  complete. 

It  will  be  seen  that  some  of  the  additions  are  single 
words,  as  in  examples  (2.),  (3.),  and  (5.)  ;  others  are 
groups  of  words,  as  in  examples  (4.),  (  6.),  (  7.),  and 
(8.).  Hence,  the  parts  of  a  sentence  may  be  eith.** 
words  or  groups  of  words. 


12  INTRODUCTION. 

Every  sentence  in  the  language  is  formed  in  a  man- 
ner similar  to  the  above.  It  must  consist  of  the  two 
essential  parts  only,  like  ( 1.),  —  or  it  must  contain 
those  two  parts  with  additions,  like  (  2.),  (3.),  (  4.),  &c. 
But,  before  the  learner  can  thoroughly  understand 
how  to  construct  a  sentence,  he  must  know  something 
of  the  formation  of  words. 

It  is  the  office  of  Grammar  to  teach  how  to  form 
words  and  entire  sentences  correctly. 

Since  words  include  the  letters  and  syllables  which 
compose  them,  and  sentences,  the  words  and  groups 
of  words  which  compose  them,  grammar  may  be  con- 
veniently divided  into  two  parts,  —  the  formation  of 
words  and  the  formation  of  sentences. 

How  may  we  tell  others  what  we  think,  feel,  or  desire  ?  Does 
every  collection  of  words  express  a  thought,  feeling,  or  desire? 
What  is  the  least  number  of  words  that  can  be  used  to  make  a 
statement  ?  Why  is  the  statement  "  Horses  ran  "  indefinite  ? 
What  does  the  word  two  added  to  horses  show  ?  How  many  horses 
might  be  included  if  two  were  not  added  ?  What  does  the  word 
white  added  to  horses  show?  What  kinds  of  horses  does  it  ex- 
clude ?  ( Ans.  Black,  gray,  red,  &c.  horses.)  What  does  the  group 
of  words  "which  were  attached  to  a  coach''''  show?  What  two 
white  horses  might  it  exclude?  What  does  the  word  furiously 
added  to  ran,  show  ?  What  other  modes  of  running  might  there 
be  ?  What  does  the  group  "  through  the  streets  of  Boston,"  show  ? 
What  does  the  group,  "  one  morning  in  June,"  show  ?  What 
shows  why  the  horses  ran  ?  What  is  each  of  the  examples  called  ? 
What  is  the  office  of  Grammar  ?  Into  how  many  parts  is  Gram 
mar  divided  ? 


PART   I. 

FORMATION  OF  WORDS. 

Part  I.  embraces  orthography  and  etymology. 
The  former  treats  of  letters  and  their  various  com- 
binations ;  the  latter  of  the  classification  and  vari- 
ous modifications  of  words. 

LESSON  I. 
ELEMENTARY   SOUNDS. 

An  elementary  sound  is  the  simplest  sound  of 
the  language ;  as  a,  e  ;  b,  k.    (See  Note,  next  page.) 

The  English  language  contains  about  forty  ele- 
mentary sounds. 

These  sounds  are  divided  into  three  classes, — 
vocals,  subvocals,  and  aspirates. 

The  vocals  consist  of  pure  tone  only ;  as,  a,  e, 
I,  0,  u. 

The  subvocals  consist  of  tone  united  with  breath ; 
as,  6,  d,  Z,  w,  7i,  r. 

The  aspirates  consist  of  pure  breath  only  ;  as,  p, 
t,  hj. 

2 


14  FIRST   LESSOXS 

EXERCISE.* 

Ttte  following  words  contain  the  different  elementary 
sounds  in  the  language.  Utter  first  the  word,  and  then  the 
element  printed  in  Italics. 

Vocals.  N-a-me,  f-a-r,  b-a-11,  a-t;  m-e,  m-e-t;  f-i-ne, 
p-z-n ;  s-o-ld,  m-o-ve,  n-o-t ;  m-w-te,  p-w-11,  c-w-p ;  f-ow-nd. 

Subvocals.  jB-at,  d-og,  g-o,  j-oy,  Z-ife,  m-an,  no,  so-ng, 
ba-r,  $-ose,  v-oice,  WMse,  y-es,  z-one,  a-z-ure. 

Aspirates,  .F-aith,  h-&t,  ar-&,  p-ine,  s-un,  £-ake,  ^A-ink, 
s7i-one,  ch-urch,  wh~en. 

Tell  by  the  sound  which  letters  in  the  following  promiscuous 
examples  are  vocals,  which  are  subvocals,  and  which  are 

ASPIRATES,  — 

And,  great,  made,  fame,  sad,  mete,  gave,  life,  voice,  six, 
zebra,  full,  sup,  dine,  bid,  bag,  kite,  pare,  when,  this,  shall, 
ocean,  king,  feel,  drive,  make,  link. 

|  *  These  sounds  can  only  be  represented  by  the  living  voice. 
Repeated  illustrations  should,  therefore,  be  given  by  the  teacher, 
until  the  pupil  can  utter  distinctly  every  element  in  the  language. 
A  sure  method  of  teaching  a  child  the  power  of  a  letter  is,  to 
give  him  a  word,  as  bat,  and  require  him  to  pronounce  it.  Next  let 
him  pronounce  as  before,  omitting  the  t,  thus  ba.  Then  omit  the  a 
and  what  remains  will  be  the  power  of  b.  In  like  manner  find  the 
sound  of  a  and  U 


What  is  an  elementary  sound  ?  How  many  elementary  sounds 
does  the  English  language  contain?  How  are  they  divided? 
What  is  a  vocal  ?    A  subvocal  ?    An  aspirate  ? 


IN   GRAMMAR.  15 

LESSON   II. 

LETTERS. 

A  letter  is  a  character  used  to  represent  an  ele-^ 
mentary  sound. 

The  English  Alphabet  contains  twenty-six  let- 
ters,—  A,  a;  B,  b;  C,c;  D,  d  ;  E,  e;  F,  f ;  G,  g; 
H,  h ;  I,  i ;  J,  j  ;  K,  k ;  L,  1 ;  M,  m ;  N,  n ;  0,  o  : 
P,  p;Q,q;R,r;  S,  s;  T,  t;  U,  u;  V,  v ;  W,  w; 
X,  x;  Y,  y;  Z,  z. 

It  will  be  seen  (Lesson  I.)  that  there  are  more  elementary  sounds 
than  letters.  Hence  some  letters  must  represent  more  than  one 
sound  each. 

Those  letters  which  represent  vocals  are  called 
vowels.  They  are  a,  e,  i,  o,  u,  and  sometimes  w 
and  y. 

Wand  Fare  consonants  when  they  precede  a  vowel  in  the  same 
syllable  ;  as,  wine,  twine,  yes,  yet.  In  all  other  situations  they  are 
vowels. 

Those  letters  which  represent  subvocals  and  aspi- 
rates are  called  consonants. 

The  consonants  are  b,  d,  g,  I,  m,  n,  r,  v,  z,  (sub- 
vocals,)  and  /,  h,  k,  c,  q,  p,  t,  s,  (aspirates;)  xis 
a  subvocal  when  it  is  equivalent  to  gs,  an  aspirate, 
when  it  is  equivalent  to  ks. 

Many  letters  have  two  or  more  distinct  sounds ; 
as,  a  in  name,  far,  fare,  war,  what,  at. 

The  same  sound  is  often  represented  by  different 
letters ;  as,  c  in  suffice,  z  in  amaze,  s  in  was, 


16  FIRST   LESSONS 

Many  of  the  letters  in  some  uses,  have  no  sound ; 
they  are  then  called  silent;  as,  gh  in  wight,  a  in 
read. 

EXERCISE. 

Tell  which  letters  are  vowels  and  which  are  consonants  in 
the  following  words,  — 

Name,  war,  come,  peace,  tree,  fish,  good,  live,  old,  sad, 
young,  wine,  said,  yet,  win,  new,  gay,  day. 

Tell  which  of  the  following  letters  represent  vocals,  which 
subvocals,  and  which  aspirates,  — 

a,  f,  g,  m,  c,  k,  d,  p,  o,  w,  s,  h,  y,  t,  r,  v,  x,  1,  e,  j. 

Give  the  sounds  of  a  in  —  name,  war,  bat,  cabbage,  fare, 
all,  what ;  of  e  in  —  mete,  met,  they,  there,  her  ;  of  i  in  — 
pine,  pin,  sir ;  of  u  in  —  mute,  put,  but,  fur ;  of  c  in  — 
mice,  sacrifice,  cat;  of  f  in  —  fare,  of ;  of  g  in  —  give,  go, 
gem,  George  ;  of  r  in  —  read,  rude,  bar,  far ;  of  s  in  —  sit, 
sin,  was,  does,  measure,  pleasure ;  of  Kin  —  wax,  example. 

Tell  the  different  letters  which  represent  the  same  sound  in 
fare,  there ;  her,  sir,  fur,  liar,  doctor,  zephyi  ;  was,  maze ; 
ice,  sin ;  feign,  lain,  mane. 

Tell  what  letters  are  silent  in  light,  true,  though,  eight, 
great,  know,  mean,  dear,  lieu,  sail. 

Analyze  the  following  words  by  giving,  in  orde4.,  the  elemen- 
tary sounds  (not  the  names  of  the  letters').  Thus,  b-a-tt  bat. 
cat,  sad,  mete,  laugh,  bought,  fought,  believe,  phthisic. 


What  is  a  letter?  How  many  letters  are  there?  What 
are  vowels?  Name  them.  How  many  consonants  are 
there  ?  Name  them.  How  many  sounds  have  many  letters? 
How  is  the  same  sound  often  represented  ?  What  are  silent 
letters? 


IN   GRAMMAR.  17 

LESSON    III. 
UNITED   LETTERS. 

A  diphthong  is  the  union  of  two  vowels  in  ono 
syllable  ;  as,  ou  in  sound,  oi  in  voice. 

A  proper  diphthong  is  one  in  which  both  vowels 
are  sounded ;  as,  ou  in  thou. 

An  improper  diphthong  is  one  in  which  one  of 
the  vowels  is  silent ;  as,  the  a  in  heat. 

A  triphthong  is  the  union  of  three  vowels  in  one 
syllable  ;  as,  eau  in  beauty. 

A  proper  tripth thong  is  one  in  which  the  three 
vowels  are  sounded ;  as,  uoy  in  buoy. 

An  improper  triphthong  is  one  in  which  one  or 
two  of  the  vowels  are  silent ;  as,  ea  in  beauty  ;  ie 
in  adieu. 

Two  consonants  often  unite  to  represent  one  or 
more  elementary  sounds  ;  as,  th  in  think,  this  ;  ch 
in  church,  chaise,  tetrarch;  ph  in  phase,  Stephen  ; 
wh  in  when  ;  sh  in  shall.  X  is  equivalent  to  gs  or 
Jcs  ;  as,  in  exist,  wax. 

Many  of  the  vowels  and  consonants  are  doubled ;  as  in  po>tr, 
pee);  Isaac,  egg,  buzz,  staff,  ebb. 

The  following  combinations  of  a  consonant  and 
a  vowel,  ti,  si,  ci,  ce,  as,  in  martial,  mission,  offi- 
cial, ocean,  are  equivalent  to  sh. 

-Most  of  the  combinations  represent  bnt  a  single  elementary 
•ound. 

2*  B 


18  FIRST  LESSONS 

EXERCISE. 

Point  out  the  combinations  in  the  following  words ;  teU 
whether  the  diphthongs  and  triphthongs  are  proper  or  im- 
proper. 

Fear,  pear,  voice,  sound,  pierce,  receive,  Europe,  popple, 
view,  adieu,  beauty,  think,  though,  shine,  when,  whip,  chip 
phrase,  chaise,  architect,  motion,  partial,  option,  session. 

What  is  a  diphthong  ?  What  is  a  proper  diphthong  ?  What  is 
an  improper  diphthong  ?  What  is  a  triphthong  ?  What  is  a 
proper  triphthong?  What  is  an  improper  triphthong?  Do  two 
consonants  ever  unite  ?  Give  examples.  What  consonants  and 
vowels  are  equivalent  to  sh  t 


LESSON    IV. 

SYLLABLES. 


A  syllable  is  a  letter  or  combination  of  letters 
uttered  with  one  impulse  of  the  voice  ;  as,  mat, 
matter,  ma-te~ri-al. 

The  essential  part  of  a  syllable  is  a  vowel. 

Note.    By  vowel  here  is  meant  a  vowel  sound,  whethei  rer  re 
sented  by  a  single  letter,  a  diphthong,  or  a  triphthong. 

A  syllable  may  consist, 

(1.)  Of  a  vowel ;  as,  a-cre,  either. 

(  2.)  Of  a  vowel  with  one  or  more  consonants 
prefixed ;  as,  basis,  bri-er,  three,  phthisis. 

(3.)  Of  a  vowel  with  one  or  more  consonants 
affixed ;  as,  in,  elf,  intev-ests,  earths. 


IN   GRAMMAR.  19 

(4.)  Of  a  vowel  with  one  or  more  consonants 
both  j)refixed  and  affixed ;  as,  w-oo-w,  tr-u-th, 
thr-u-sts. 

Note.  In  the  preceding  lessons  the  pupil  has  been  occupied 
with  elementary  sounds  and  the  characters  which  represent  them. 
In  this  lesson  he  is  taught  the  modes  of  combining  them  into 
syllables.  It  is  often  necessary  to  separate  a  syllable  into  its  ele 
ments. 

The  process  of  combining  elementary  parts  is 
called  synthesis  ;  that  of  separating  a  combination 
into  its  elements  is  called  analysis. 

Note.  In  analyzing  a  syllable,  let  the  learner  tell,  (1.)  the 
essential  part,  that  is,  the  vowel  or  diphthong;  (2.)  the  consonant 
or  consonants  which  are  prefixed  to  it;  (3.)  the  consonant  or  con 
sonants  which  are  affixed  to  it. 

Models  for  analyzing  Syllables. 

An-  •  •  is  a  syllable  consisting  of  two  elements: 

A  •  •  •  •  is  the  essential  element,  —  it  is  a  vowel.  (Give  its 
sound.) 

n is  a  consonant  and  represents  a  sub  vocal ;  it  is  affixed 

to  a.     (Give  its  sound.) 

Break  is  a  syllable  consisting  of  three  parts  : 

ea-««-is  the  essential  part,  —  it  is  a  diphthong  (why?), 
improper  (why  ?) ;  e  is  silent,  —  a  only  is  sounded. 
(Give  its  sound.) 

Br is  a  union  of  two  consonants,  both  representing  sub- 
vocals,  b  and  r  which  are  prefixed  to  ea.  (Give 
their  sounds  separately,  then  together.) 

k is  a  consonant  representing  an  aspirate  and  is  affixed 

to  ea.    (Give  its  sound.) 


20  FIRST   LESSONS 

EXERCISE. 

Analyze  the  following  syllables,  and  describe  each  element, — > 
Kite,  dog,  numb,  boat,  friend,  truth,  day,  wax,  bat,  view, 
sound,  aid,  meat,  suit,  rude,  the,  think,  sit,  leave,  three, 
oursts,  threats. 

Form  syllables  by  prefixing  one  consonant  to  a,  ay,  ey,  ou, 
ieu,  y ;  two  consonants  to  e,  oo,  oe,  i,  ou,  oi ;  three  conso- 
nants to  ee,  ea,  ay,  i,  ey ;  —  by  affixing  one,  two,  or  three 
consonants  to  any  five  of  the  above  vowels  or  diphthongs. 
Form  ten  syllables  in  which  one,  two,  or  more  consonants 
shall  be  prefixed  and  affixed. 

What  is  a  syllable  ?  What  is  the  essential  part  of  a  syllable  ? 
Of  what  may  a  syllable  consist  ?  What  is  the  process  of  com 
bining  elementary  parts  called  ?     What  is  analysis  ? 


LESSON    V. 

WORDS   USED   TO   REPRESENT   SOUNDS. 

Note.  Written  words  are  used  to  represent  both  sounds  and 
ideas.  As  the  representatives  of  sounds,  they  are  classified  accord 
ing  to  the  number  of  syllables  they  contain. 

A  word  may  consist  of  one  syllable  alone,  or  of 
two  or  more  syllables  united. 

A  word  of  one  syllable  is  called  a  monosyllable  ; 
as,  boy,  pen,  tree. 

A  word  of  two  syllables  is  called  a  dissyllable  ; 
as,  na-ture,  faitJi-ful. 

A  word  of  three  syllables  is  called  a  trisyllable  ; 
as  nat-ur-al,  faithful-ness. 


IN   GRAMMAR.  21 

4 

A  word  of  four  or  more  syllables  is  called  a  poly- 
syllable ;  as,  un-nat-u-ral,  un-faith-ful-nessi 

Accent  is  a  stress  of  the  voice  placed  upon  a 
particular  syllable,  to  distinguish  it  from  others. 

Every  word  of  more  than  one  syllable  has  one 
of  its  syllables  accented. 

The  accented  syllable  may  be  either  the  first, 
last,  or  a  middle  syllable ;  as,  dv!ty,  be-long* \  pre- 
p  arming. 

Some  words  have  a  primary  and  secondary  accent;  as,  in' '-de- 
fat  Hgable,  in '  '-compreken  'sible. 

Note.  In  separating  a  word  into  its  syllables,  we  should  divide 
it  as  it  is  pronounced.  Thus,  some  pionounce  pat'ri-ot,  others 
paHri-ot,  and  the  t  must  be  joined  to  the  first  or  second  syllable 
accordingly.  The  learner  should  tell  how  many  syllables  a  word 
contains,  calling  it  a  monosyllable,  dissyllable,  &c,  then  point  out 
the  accented  syllable,  and  analyze  each  according  to  the  preceding 
models,  (page  19.) 

EXERCISE. 
Analyze  and  describe  the  following  words :  — 
Beat,  said,  tree ;  friendship,  social,  himself,  stately ;  com- 
plaining, interpret,  indolence ;   incessantly,  condemnation, 
interdicting,  domesticate  ;  consanguinity,  confederation,  im- 
penetrable ;   mispronunciation,  incomprehensible,   indefati- 
gable; impenetrability;  incomprehensibility. 
Correct  the  accent  in  the  following  words :  — 
Local,    indolence,    memorable,    ig/noble,    frequently, 
lamentable,  actu'al,  indisputable,  immutable,  retrospect, 
completion,  late'ral.      Change  the  accent  in  the  following 
words  to   the   second  syllable   and  give   their  meaning, — 
August,    con'jure,   des'ert,    entrance,    min'ute,    pres'ent* 
proj'ect,  in'valid. 


22  FIRST   LESSONS 

Write  the  following  words  upon  ike  slate,  and  divide  them 
into  syllables,  marking  the  accented  salable .  — 

Conscience,  detecting,  inability,  indubitable,  commotion, 
laborious,  relate,  detestation,  infesting,  exemplary. 

Model.     Con'-science. 

Miscellaneous  Questions  for  Review.* 
How  many  letters  should  we  have,  if  each  element  were  repro 
sented  by  a  single  letter  ?  In  what  respect  does  a  vocal  differ  from 
a  subvocal?  A  subvocal  from  an  aspirate?  What  is  the  difference 
between  a  letter  and  an  elementary  sound  ?  What  is  the  difference 
between  the  name  of  a  letter  and  its  sound  ?  In  what  respect  do 
the  names  of  most  of  the  letters  resemble  their  sounds  ?  Are  tkt 
chr,  phi,  phth,  sts,  syllables  ?  Why  ?  How  many  elementary 
sounds  in  though,  neigh  f  In  the  first  syllables  of  [j]  unity,  union  ? 
How  are  syllables  formed  ?  What  should  be  your  guide  in  dividing 
words  into  syllables  ?  Have  ate,  brought,  fine,  any  accent  ?  Why  ? 
How  would  you  mark  august  so  as  to  make  it  mean  grand  f  Utter, 
in  succession,  the  elementary  sounds  of  believing,  composing,  delin- 
quent. 

*  These  Questions  are  intended  as  a  general  exercise  on  the  preceding 
lessons.  They  cannot  always  be  answered  directly  from  any  one  para- 
graph in  the  text,  but  are  designed  to  test  the  pupil's  knowledge  of  th© 
subject.  The  teacher  should  multiply  such  questions  according  to  th% 
wants  of  his  class. 


DERIVATION  AND   COMPOSITION  OF   WORDS. 
LESSON  VI. 

WORDS   CLASSIFIED   ACCORDING   TO   THEIR  FORMATION. 

Note.  The  English  language  contains  about  eighty  thousand 
words.  Considered  as  the  representatives  of  ideas,  these  words 
are  classified  according  to  their  formation,  or  according  to  their 
meaning  and  use.  Classified  according  to  their  formation,  a# 
■words  are  either  primitive,  derivative,  or  compound, 


IN   GRAMMAR.  23 

A  word  in  no  way  derived  from  another  is  a 
radical  or  primitive  word  ;  as,  form,  harm. 

A  word  formed  by  joining  to  a  primitive  some 
letter  or  syllable,  to  modify  its  meaning,  is  a  de- 
rivative word  ;  as,  re-form,  harm-Zess. 

A  word  formed  by  uniting  two  or  more  entire 
words,  is  a  compound  word ;  as,  inkstand,  school- 
house. 

The  parts  of  those  compounds  which  have  been  long  in  use  are 
generally  united  closely;  as,  nevertheless,  sunrise;  in  others,  the 
hyphen  (-)  is  used  to  separate  the  parts  ;  as,  labor-saving. 

EXERCISE. 

Tell  which  of  the  following  words  are  primitive,  which 
derivative,  and  which  compound  :  — 

Bright,  fair,  told,  meek,  some,  playful,  joyless,  income, 
bookstore,  playmate,  cloud-capped,  ink,  housetop,  fearful, 
reform,  dismember,  dreary. 

Form  derivative  words  from  the  following  primitives,  and 
draw  a  line  under  the  added  syllable  or  letter:  —  hope,  fear, 
harm,  love,  care,  know,  peer,  ape,  weed,  cloud,  form,  grade, 
place,  joy,  truth,  poet,  fade,  weep,  laugh. 

Model.    Hopete.  .         ' 

Form  compound  words,  by  joining  some  appropriate  word 
to  each  of  the  following :  —  Air,  chest,  alms,  bank,  birth, 
bill,  fire,  eye,  weed,  toll,  wood,  foot,  work,  play,  land,  busy, 
tree,  breeze. 

Model.    Air-pump. 

"VThat  is  a  radical  or  primitive  word?  What  is  a  derivative 
word  ?    W  aat  is  a  compound  word  ? 


24  FIRST  LESSONS 

LESSON    VII. 

PREFIXES. 

That  part  of  a  derivative  word  whicli  is  placed 
before  the  radical  is  called  a  prefix',  as,  re-turn, 
pre-pay. 

In  applying  prefixes  to  radicals,  certain  changes  often  take 
place,  to  render  the  sound  more  agreeable.  These  changes  are 
made  according  to  the  following  rules :  — 

Rule  I.  Dropping  the  final  letter.  —  The 
final  letter  of  a  prefix  is  sometimes  omitted ;  as, 
coexistent  for  e<m-existent,  antarctic  for  cmfo'-arctic. 

Rule  II.  Changing  the  final  letter.  —  The 
final  letter  of  a  prefix  is  often  changed  to  one  which 
will  harmonize,  in  sound,  with  the  initial  letter  of 
the  radical ;  as,  zm-pious  for  zVpious. 

The  final  letter  of  the  prefix  generally  becomes  the  same  as  the 
first  letter  of  the  radical ;  as,  i7-limitable. 

The  principal  prefixes  which  undergo  this  change  are  ad,  (ac,  af, 
ag,  al,  an,  ap,  ar,  as,  at;)  con,  (cog,  com,  col,  cor;)  en,  (em ;)  e,  (ex 
ec,  ef;)  dis,  (dif,  di;)  ob,  (of,  pc,  op;)  sub,  (sue,  suf,  sug,  sup,  sur;) 
syn,  (sym,  syl). 

EXERCISE   ON  RULES   I.   II. 

Write  derivatives  by  prefixing  anti  to  arctic ;  con  to  tern 
porary,  laborer,  extensive,  location,  mend,  mix,  mingle, 
nomen,  relative ;  ad  to  scribe,  credit,  firm,  fluent,  legation, 
rest,  point,  ply,  tempt;  in  to  religious,  legal,  legible,  liberal, 
noble,  perfect,  penitent,  potent,  prove;  en  to  body,  broil; 
ob  to  position,  press,  cur,  fend ;  sub  to  session,  fix,  fumiga- 
tion, fusion,  gest,  press,  render ;  syn  to  pathetic,  logistic ;  ex 
to  centric,  flux  ;  dis  to  fuse,  late. 


%* 


o*- 


'  i'  n 


IN    GRAMMAR. 


OF  THE 

; 

Correct  the  following  examples  by  Rule  II.  Inply,  suu- 
render,  inmediate,  synpathetic,  adlegation,  adfect,  adcredit, 
obpose,  obportunity,  exfect,  disfer,  inluminate,  conlect,  con- 
niend,  enploy,  subgest. 

Note.  The  most  common  prefixes  are  contained  in  the  follow 
ing  list.  They  are  chiefly  prepositions  of  Saxon,  Latin,  or  Greek 
origin.  The  roots  to  which  they  are  prefixed  are  not  always  used 
as  distinct  words  in  the  English  language.  The  meaning  of  such 
radicals  may  generally  be  determined  by  applying  different  pre- 
fixes. Thus,  in  m-pel,  ex-ne\,  o^s-pel,  corn-pel,  j^ro-pel,  one  would 
readily  see,  by  comparison,  that  pel  means  to  drive. 


SI1 


PREFIXES   OF   SAXON   ORIGIN. 


"Prefix. 

Signification. 

Example. 

A. 

on  or  in. 

Aboard,  ashore. 

Be. 

near,  on,  for,  over, 

-Beside,  oestir. 

For. 

against,  from. 

.Forbid,  forsake. 

Fore. 

before. 

Foresee,  ybretell. 

Mis. 

wrong,  error. 

Mistake,  misspell. 

Over. 

above,  beyond. 

Oyerdo,  overload. 

Out. 

beyond,  more. 

Outrun,  outdo. 

Un. 

not,  negation. 

Unwise,  unkind. 

Under. 

beneath,  inferior. 

Understand,  undergo. 

Up. 

above,  subversion. 

Qslift,  upset. 

With. 

against,  from. 

Withsta,nd,  withdraw. 

PREFIXES   OF 

LATIN   ORIGIN. 

A,  ab,  abs. 

from,  away. 

-45stract,  avert. 

Ad* 

to,  at,  towards. 

-4ajoin,  approach  (move). 

Ante. 

before. 

-decedent  (going). 

Bene. 

good,  well. 

J5eraevolent,  oeweficent  (doinj^ 

Bis  or  bi. 

twice,  two. 

insect  (cut),  foped  (feet). 

Circum. 

around,  about. 

tt'rcwwmavigate  (sail). 

Cis. 

on  this  side. 

Cisalpine. 

Coa* 

together,  with. 

CWlect,  cowflne. 

Contra. 

against. 

Contradict  (speak). 

*  Those  prefixes  marked  with  the  star  have  other  forms.    See  Lesson  VIL 

3 


26 


FIRST   LESSONS 


Prefix 

Signification. 

Example. 

Be. 

from,  down. 

.Dethrone,  detract  (draw). 

Dis.* 

asunder. 

.Distract, .  divert  ( turn. ) 

E  (ex).* 

out  of,  from. 

Eject  (drive),  expel  (cast). 

Extra. 

beyond. 

Potfraordinary. 

In* 

into,  in;  not.-\ 

Inform,  include ;  inactive. 

Inter. 

between. 

Interpose  (place,. 

Intro. 

in,  within. 

Introduce  (lead). 

Non. 

not. 

iVonconformist. 

Ob.* 

against. 

^struct  (build). 

Per. 

through  jy. 

Pe?'fect  (made). 

Post. 

after. 

Postpone  (place). 

Pre. 

before. 

Precede  (go). 

Pro. 

for,  forth,  fortoards 

.  Pronoun,  progress  (go). 

Preter. 

past,  beyond. 

Preternatural. 

Re. 

back,  again. 

Recall. 

Retro. 

backwards. 

Pe^rograde  (move). 

Se. 

apart,  separation. 

£ecede  (go). 

Sine. 

without. 

5mecure  (care). 

Snb.* 

under. 

Subscribe  (write). 

Snper. 

over,  beyond. 

/Superscribe  (write). 

Trans. 

over,  change. 

Transplant. 

Uni.     _ 

one. 

Uniform. 

GREEK    PREFIXES. 

A  or  an. 

•without. 

Anonymous  (name). 

Amphi. 

both,  double. 

Amphibious  (living). 

Ana. 

through,  up. 

Anatomy  (cut). 

Anti. 

against. 

yl?*^*christian. 

Apo  or  Aph. 

from. 

^ogee  (earth). 

Dia. 

through. 

Diameter  (measure). 

Epi. 

upon. 

Ppitaph  (tomb). 

Hyper. 

over,  above. 

/7j/percritical. 

Hypo. 

under. 

Hypocrite. 

Meta  or  Meth. 

change,  beyond. 

J/efomorphose  (form). 

Para. 

from,  against 

Paradox  (opinion). 

Peri. 

around. 

Pe?^'meter  (measure ). 

Syn* 

with. 

Sympathy  (feeling). 

t  Before  a  verb,  in  signifies  into,  in.  and  sometimes  against ;  before  \ 
adjective  it  has  a  negative  meaning. 


IN   GRAMMAR.  27 

Note.  Many  of  the  roots  to  which  the  prefixes  are  added  are 
not  distinct  words  in  the  English  language.  In  the  following  exer 
cises,  as  in  the  above  examples,  such  roots  will  ]be  defined  in  a 
parenthesis.  The  pupil  should  analyze  derivative  words  according 
to  the  following 

MODEL   FOR  ANALYSIS. 

Impenitent  ....  is  a  derivative  word,  (why?) 

Penitent is  the  radical  part,  and  signifies  repenting. 

Im is  the  prefix  (in,  Rule  II.)  and  signifies  not. 

Hence,  impenitent,  not  repenting. 

EXERCISE. 

Analyze  the  following  derivative  words  according  to  the 
model :  — 

Aboard,  aground,  accredit,  accustom,  aggrieve,  antepast 
(taste),  forgive,  bestir,  foreknow,  misplace,  overtake,  ab- 
stract (draw),  outrun,  uncommon,  adjoin,  understand,  up- 
hold, withdraw,  benevolent  (wishing),  circumscribe  (write 
or  mark),  cisalpine,  bivalve,  complete  (fill),  dispel  (drive), 
imprint,  interdict  (speak),  oppose  (place),  pervade  (pass), 
premeditate,  preoccupy,  post  mortem  (death),  progress  (go), 
refer  (carry),  reanimate,  subterraneous  (earth),  support 
(bear),  superstructure,  transpose  (place),  acephalous  (head), 
antipathy  (feeling),  apostatize  (standing),  aphasresis  (tak- 
ing), diagonal  (angle),  epitaph  (tomb),  paraphrase  (speak- 
ing), periphrasis. 

Study  the  list  of  prefixes,  and  then  add  to  the  following 
roots  all  that  may  be  used  appropriately.     Define  each  word. 

Form,  spire*  (to  breathe),  rect  (to  make  straight),  part, 
sign,  sume  (to  take),  scribe  (to  write),  tract  (to  draw),  duce 
(to  lead),  sist  (to  stand),  lude  (to  play),  cede  (to  go,  to 
yield),  elude  (to  shut  or  close),  port  (to  carry),  act,  claim 

*To  many  of  the  radicals  two  prefixes  are  added,  each  having  its  peculia* 
loroe ;  as,  re-con-struct,  re-ad-mit.    The  pupil  should  explain  each 


28         ,  FIRST   LESSONS 

(to  call  or  speak),  natural,  sure,  prove,  join,  struct  (to 
build),  course,  cur  (to  run),  vention  (the  act  of  coming  or 
going),  graph  (marked  or  written),  fuse,  press,  pel  (to  urge 
or  drive),  volve  (to  roll  or  turn),  gress  (to  step,  pass),  fix, 
fiux,  fer  or  late  (to  bear,  carry),  mise  or  mit  (to  send),  tain 
(to  hold),  diet  (to  speak),  pose  (to  place),  vers  or  vert  (to 
turn). 

Model.     Cbraform,    to  form  together,  i.  e.,  to  assimilate,  to  yield 

to  custom, 
ifoform,      to  form  again,  i.  e.,  to  renew. 
Inform,      to  form  in  [the  mind],  i.  e.,  to  tell,     [figure 
Deform,      to  form  from  [the  proper  shape],  i.  e.,  to  dis 
Perform,    to  form  through,  i.  e.,  thoroughly,  to  complete. 
Transform,  to  form  over,  i.  e.,  to  change  the  form. 

Note.    By  exercises  like  the  above,  multiplied  at  the  discretion 
of  the  teacher,  the  pupil  may  soon  perceive  the  force  of  all  the 
prefixes.    It  is  a  good  exercise  to  take  the  dictionary  and  require 
the  pupil  to  explain  all  the  derivatives  from  any  given  root. 
i 

What  is  a  prefix  ?  Give  the  Rules  for  the  changes  in  some  of 
the  prefixes.  What  is  the  meaning  of  each  of  the  prefixes  ?  Give 
an  example. 


LESSON   VIII 

SUFFIXES. 

That  part  of  a  derivative  word,  which  is  placed 
after  the  radical,  is  called  a  suffix;  as,  faith/wZ, 
end-less. 

Note.  In  applying  suffixes,  the  final  letter  or  letters  of  the 
radical  are  often  changed.  Such  changes  are  made  according  to 
the  following  rules  :  — 


IN   GRAMMAR.  29 

Rule  I.  Doubling  the  final  letter.  —  On 
receiving  a  suffix  beginning  with  a  vowel,  the  final 
consonant  of  a  monosyllable,  or  of  any  word  ac- 
cented on  the  last  syllable,  is  doubled, — if  the  . 
radical  ends  with  a  single  consonant,  preceded  by  a 
single  vowel ;  otherwise  it  remains  single ;  as,  dig- 
zng,  di#-#ing;  defer-mg,  defer-ring,  Not  so,  re- 
paying, defending,  differ-ing. 

Many  words  ending  in  I ;  as,  travel,  libel,  cancel,  cavil,  chisel, 
counsel,  duel,  equal,  grovel,  model,  pencil,  revel,  rival,  trammel,  tun- 
nel, &c,  double  the  I  on  receiving  a  suffix  beginning  with  a  vowel, 
though  not  accented  on  the  last  syllable.  To  these  add  worship, 
bias,  kidnap ;  worship-ping,  bizs-sing,  kidnap-^'ra^. 

Rule  II.  Dropping  the  final  "letter.  —  On 
receiving  a  suffix,  beginning  with  a  vowel,  the  final 
vowel  of  the  radical  is  dropped  in  most  words  end- 
ing in  e,  silent ;  as,  love-ing,  loving ;  —  also,  in  some 
words  ending  in  y  and  i  ;  as,  felicity-ate,  felicitate  ; 
dezism,  deism. 

Contrary  to  the  general  rule,  the  final  e  is  retained,  when  pre- 
ceded by  c  or  g ;  as,  peace-a&£e,  peaceable ;  change-aWe,  change- 
able. 

The  final  letters  le,  when  followed  by  ly,  are  dropped  ;  as,  noble 
ly}  nobly.  So  also  t  or  te  before  ce  or  cy ;  as,  vagrant-c?/,  vagrancy ; 
prelate-c?/,  prelacy. 

Words  ending  in  II  drop  one  I  on  taking  an  additional  syllable, 
beginning  with  a  consonant ;  as,  &ki\\-ful,  skilful. 

Rule  III.  Changing  the  final  letter.  —  The  * 
final  y  of  a  radical  word  is  generally  changed  to  «', 
if  preceded  by  a  consonant,  otherwise  it  usually 
remains  unchanged ;  as,  happy-es£,  happiest ;  duty- 
es,  duties  ;  day-s,  days. 
3* 


30  FIRST   LESSONS 

Tlie  /J  in  words  ending  in  f  or  fe,  is  generally  changed  to  vt 
when  the  suffix  begins  with  a  vowel;  as,  life,  lives. 

To  prevent  doubling  i,  the  y  is  not  changed  when  the  suffix  be- 
gins with  i;  as,  marry-iw<7,  marrying.  For  the  same  reason,  the  « 
being  dropped  by  Rule  II.  in  die,  lie,  tie,  vie,  the  i  is  changed  to  y; 
as,  dying,  lying,  tying,  vying. 

EXERCISES   ON   THE   RULES. 

Add  ing,  ed,  or  er,  to  beg,  sit,  dig,  dim,  bed,  dog,  let, 
bet,  prefer,  transfer,  forget,  dispel,  propel,  befit,  control, 
travel,  level,  counsel ;  love,  compile,  receive,  leave,  grieve, 
confine,  define.  Add  able  to  peace,  change,  sale ;  —  ly  to 
able,  disagreeable,  conformable,  idle,  noble  ;  —  ful  to  skill, 
will;  —  es,  ed,  or  ing,  to  duty,  lily,  glory,  story,  history, 
beauty,  beautify,  amplify,  rectify. 

Correct  the  following,  and  explain  your  corrections :  — 
beding,  beting,  wifes,  debared,  abhorent,  alkalioid,  gloryous, 
citys,  fancyful,  tarriing,  earning,  dutyful,  bountyful,  hand- 
someest,  bloting,  fameous,  agreeabley,  incompatabley. 

What  is  a  suffix  ?     Give  Rules  I.,  II.,  and  III. 


LESSON   IX. 


LIST    OF   THE   PRINCIPAL   SUFFIXES. 

The  following  list  contains  the  principal  suffixes.  They  sig 
nify,— 

I.     The  person  who,  the  female  who. 

Ant,  ar,  ard,  ary,  eer,  er,  ee,  ent,  ist,  ite,  ian,  ive,  or,  ner, 
ster,  yer,  zen ;  ess,  ress,  ix,  ine. 

Examples.  African,  one  who  lives  in  Africa.  Servant,  one  who 
serves.  Beggar,  one  who  begs.  Adversary,  one  wlio  opposes.  So, 
dotard,  charioteer,  laborer,  mortgagee,  presided,  favorite,  economic, 


IN    GRAMMAR.  31 

arithmetician,  operative,  actor,  partner,  teamster,  lawyer,  citizen; 
poetess,  instructress,  testatrix,  heroine. 

II.  The  thing  which,  the  act  of  the  quality  of, 
or  state  of, 

Acy,  age,  al,  ade,  ancy,  ance,  ency,  ence,  ety,  hood,  ion, 
ism,  ice,  ment,  mony,  ness,  ry,  ship,  ude,  (tude,)  th,  ty,  ure, 
dom,  ric. 

Examples.  Privacy,  the  state  of  being  private.  Justice  that  ivhich 
is  just.  Meekness,  the  quality  of  being  meek.  So,  bondage,  re- 
fusal, cannonade,  expectancy,  repentance,  penitence,  emergency, 
variety,  childhood,  erection,  despotism,  commandmew^  acrimony, 
goodness,  rivalry,  scholarship,  quietnde,  truth,  novelty,  pressure, 
Christendom,  bishopric. 

III.  The  property  pertaining  to,  belonging  to, 
or  abounding  in. 

Ac,  al,  an  (ian,  ean),  ar,  ary,  ate,  ic  (tic  or  atic),  ile,  ine, 
ory,  ose,  ous  (ious,  eous,  uous),  ful,  ey,  y. 

Examples.  Elegiac,  pertaining  to  an  elegy.  Mountainon*, 
abounding  in  mountains.  So,  autumna?,  antedeluvian,  emblematic, 
lunatic,  consular,  discretionary,  juvenile,  adamantine,  transitory, 
verbose,  wondrons,  affectionate,  hopeful,  sunny. 

IV.  To  cause,  to  make. 

Ate  (iate,  uate),  en,  fy,  ish,  ize,  ise. 

Examples.  Alienate,  to  make  an  alien.  So,  justi/y,  stablwfc 
soften,  civilise,  criticise. 

V.  Diminution. 

Cle,  cule-,  kin,  let,  ling,  ock. 

Examples.  Corpuscle,  a  little  body  or  particle.  So,  animalcttte, 
lambfcin,  eagfci,  duckling,  hillock. 

VI.  (Miscellaneous.*) 

Oid,  like;  as,  spheroid — ive,  tending  to;  as,  delusive  — 
ward,  towards;  as,  eastward  —  less,  without;  as,  sleep/ess 


32  FIRST   LESSONS 

—  ics,  science  of;  as,  mathematics  —  ish,  somewhat ;  as, 
blui'sA  —  like,  resembling;  as,  warlike  —  ly,  in  —  manner, 
as,  wisely  —  able  (ible)  capable  of;  as,  credible. 

Note.  The  following  terminations  are  properly  grammatical 
inflections,  used  to  denote  the  accidents  of  the  noun,  verb,  adjective, 
or  adverb. 

s  or  es,     more  than  one,  (plural ;)  as,  birds*  ;  churches. 
ed,  .  .  .  past  time  or  the  passive  state ;  as,  loved  (did  love, 

or  was  loved.) 
ing,  .  .  .  continuing  to  do ;  as,  lowing. 
er,  est,    more,  most;  as,  warmer,  warmest. 

Note.  The  general  significations  of  the  various  suffix  2S  are 
given  in  the  above  list.  The  particular  variations  of  these  mean 
ings,  to  suit  given  cases,  will  readily  suggest  themselves. 

MODEL   FOR   ANALYSIS. 

Quietude,  ....  It  is  a  derivative  word,  (why?) 

Quiet, is  the  radical  part  and  signifies  rest. 

Ude, is  the  suffix  and  signifies  state  of. 

Hence,  quiet-ude,  state  of  rest. 
Note.    By  combining  this  with  the  preceding  model,  the  pupil 
can  analyze  all  words  having  both  a  prefix  and  a  suffix.    All  com 
pounds  may  be  analyzed  according  to  the  following 

MODEL. 

Sea-breeze  .  .  is  a  compound  word,  (why  ?)  formed  from 

Sea, which  means  the  ocean,  and 

breeze,  ....  which  means  a  gentle  wind. 

Hence,  Sea-breeze,  a  gentle  wind  from  the  ocean. 

EXERCISE. 
Sjudy  the  list  of  suffixes  and  prefixes,  and  then  analyze  the 
following  derivative  words :  — 

Incomplete,  famous,  peerage,  childhood,  peaceable,  ani- 

*  Wlien  5  or  es  are  added  to  the  present  tense  of  the  verh,  they  denote  the 
singular  nuraher 


IN   GRAMMAR.  S3 

inalcule,  pupilage,  globule,  hopeful,  kingdom,  friendship, 
expectation,  indecisive,  incompatible,  incomprehensibility, 
righteous,  signature,  prepossession,  dissimilarity,  discovery, 
recoverable,  reorganize,  transparency,  debasement,  promo- 
tion, derangement,  reinstate,  predisposition,  illumination^ 
ignominiously,  allegation,  confederation,  impenetrability, 
disqualification. 

Analyze  the  following  compound  words:  — 

Seahorse,  timepiece,  cloudcapped,  fireplace,  inkstand, 
tree-top,  woodhouse,  schoolroom,  mousetrap,  whaleship, 
sunrise,  drawbridge,  newspaper,  copy-book,  breastplate, 
eyesight,  airpump,  cornstalk,  woodpile. 

Add  as  many  prefixes  and  suffixes  as  you  can  to  the  fol- 
lowing radicals,  and  count  the  number  of  words  you  form 
from  each :  — 

Form,  gress  (go),  press,  grade,  range,  merge,  number, 
face,  brace,  value,  measure,  like,  state,  cloud,  fair,  stable, 
equal,  print,  trust,  burden,  mix,  mount,  line,  social,  move, 
base,  animate,  judge,  test,  use,  lay,  figure,  firm,  vene  (come), 
join,  struct  (build),  charge,  cede,  serve,  tend. 

Model.  Form  —  form.?,  former,  formed,  forming,  form- 
ation, formaZ,  formally,  formality,  formalist,  formalism,  form- 
ative, reform,  reforms,  reformed,  reforming,  reformation, 
reformatory,  reformative,  reformer,  inform,  informs,  informer, 
informed,  informing,  informal,  informally,  informality,  in- 
formant,  misinform,  misinformed,  perform,  performs,  per- 
former, performed,  performing,  performance,  performance, 
deform,  deforms,  deformed,  deforming,  deformity,  transform> 
transforms,  transforming,  transformed,  transformation,  con* 
form,  conforms,  conforming,  conformed,  conformer,  conform- 
able,  conformably,  conformation,  conformist,  conform^, 
tionco^rmist,  nonconformity,  wnform,  nnformed,  uniform, 
owiforms,  uniformly,  uniformity.  65  words. 
G 


34  FIRST  LESSONS 

Note.  Care  should  be  taken  that  no  word  be  sanctioned  which 
is  not  in  good  nse.  Analogy  will  lead  the  learner  to  form  words 
which  have  not  the  sanction  of  usage. 

How  many  classes  of  suffixes  are  given?  What  does  each 
denote  ?    Mention  the  principal  suffixes  under  each. 


PARTS    OF  SPEECH— INFLECTION. 
LESSON   X. 

WORDS   CLASSIFIED   ACCORDING   TO   THEIR  MEANING 

AND  USE. 
Note.  This  classification  cannot  be  fully  understood  till  tha 
pupil  learns  to  combine  words  into  sentences ;  and  as  it  depends 
upon  the  use  of  words,  the  same  word  may  belong  to  one  class  in 
one  connection,  and  to  another  in  another.  Yet  all  words  may  be 
reduced  to  eight  classes,  called  parts  of  speech. 

A  noun  is  the  name  of  an  object ;  as,  fruit, 
Henry,  Boston. 

The  noun  (from  the  Lat.  nomen,  a  name)  embraces  a  large  num 
ber  of  words.  All  words  which  are  the  names  of  persons,  animals* 
places,  or  things,  material  or  immaterial,  are  called  nouns. 

A  pronoun  is  a  word  which  takes  the  place  of  a 
noun  ;  as,  1",  he,  you,  who. 

This  part  of  speech  (derived  from  the  Lat.  pronomen,ybr  a  name) 
embraces  but  a  small  number  of  different  words ;  yet  any  noun 
may  be  represented  by  a  pronoun. 

An  adjective  is  a  word  used  to  limit  or  qualify 
the  meaning  of  a  noun  or  pronoun;  as,  good,  faith 
ful,  this,  some. 


IN   GRAMMAR.  35 

The  adjective  (from  the  Lat.  adjectus,  added  to,  i.  e.,  to  a  noun) 
embraces  a  large  class  of  words,  which  are  added  to  nouns  lo  ex 
press  their  qualities  or  define  them ;  as,  "  Worthy  citizens ; "  "  thii 
book."  It  will  be  seen  that  these  three  parts  of  speech  are  inti 
inately  connected;  the  first  is  the  name  of  an  object,  —  the  seconJ 
may  take  the  place  of  the  first,  —  the  third  expresses  the  properties 
<tf  either.  All  words  which  are  united  to  nouns  answering  such 
questions  as  What?  WhatTdndl  How  many?  are  adjectives. 

A  verb  is  a  word  which  expresses  being,  action, 
or  state  ;  as,  be,  read,  sleep,  is  loved. 

Nothing  can  be  affirmed  without  a  verb.  It  is  derived  from  the 
Lat.  verbum,  the  word,  i.  e.,  the  important  word ;  it  embraces  a 
large  class  of  words.  The  different  uses  of  the  verb,  as  well  as 
those  of  the  other  parts  of  speech,  will  be  explained  in  Part  II. 

An  adverb  is  used  to  modify  the  meaning  of  a 
verb,  an  adjective,  or  another  adverb  ;  as,  quickly, 
first,  far. 

The  adverb  (from  the  Lat.  adverbum,  added  to  a  verb)  embraces 
all  those  words  which  are  added  to  verbs,  adjectives,  or  other 
adverbs,  to  denote  time,  place,  and  manner. 

A  preposition  is  a  word  used  to  show  the  relation 
between  a  noun  or  pronoun  and  some  preceding 
word ;  as,  upon,  on,  with. 

This  part  of  speech  embraces  a  small  list  of  words,  which  are 
used  to  denote  the  relations  of  place,  time,  cause,  manner,  property, 
quality,  &c.  It  is  called  a  preposition  (from  the  Lat.  prepositus, 
placed  before)  from  the  circumstance  of  its  being  placed  before  the 
object  with  which  it  is  always  associated. 

A  conjunction  is  a  word  used  to  connect  either 
words,  phrases,  or  propositions ;  as,  and,  but,  or. 

The  conjunction  includes  but  a  small  plass  of  words,  which  are 
used  to  join  the  parts  of  a  sentence ;  it  is  derived  from  the  Lat  son 
junctus,  joined. 


36  FI31ST   LESSONS 

An  interjection  is  a  word  used  to  express  some 
emotion  of  the  mind;  as,  oh!  alas! 

The  term  interjection,  (from  the  Lat.  interjectus,  thrown  between,) 
is  app'ied  to  a  few  words  that  do  not  enter  into  the  structure  cf 
a  sentence;  but  may  be  thrown  in  at  pleasure,  to  express  our 
feelings. 

Note.  The  exercises  on  the  parts  of  speech  are  deferred  till  the 
earner  shall  commence  the  construction  of  sentences.  The  pupil 
should  now  commence  Part  II.,  page  81. 

How  many  parts  of  speech  are  there  ?  What  is  a  noun  V  A 
pronoun  ?  An  adjective  ?  A  verb  ?  An  adverb  ?  A  preposition  ? 
A  conjunction  ?    An  interjection  ? 


LESSON    XI. 

NOUNS. 

A  noun  is  the  name  of  an  object. 

Note.  —  The  word  object,  as  here  used,  embraces  every  species 
of  existence,  whether  material  or  immaterial. 

Nouns  are  divided  into  two  classes,  — proper  and 
common. 

A  proper  noun  is  the  name  of  an  individual 
object ;  as,  James,  Erie. 

A  common  noun  is  a  name  which  applies  to  each 
individual  of  a  class  of  objects ;  as,  man,  boy^ 
house. 

Under  the  head  of  common  nouns  are  commonly  reckoned 
collective,  abstract,  and  verbal  nouns. 

A  collective  noun  is  one  which,  in  the  singular,  denotes  mora 
than  one  object    as,  army,  family,  flock. 


IN   GRAMMAR.  37 

An  abstract  noun  is  the  name  of  a  property  considered  apan 
from  the  object  to  which  it  belongs ;  as,  goodness,  virtue,  wisdom. 

A  verbal  noun  is  a  participle  used  as  a  noun ;  as,  "  He  was  con 
victed  of  stealing." 

The  infinitive  is  a  kind  of  verbal  noun ;  as,  "  To  see  the  sun  n 
aloasant." 

A  phrase  or  entire  proposition  may  be  used  as  a  noun;  as, 
"  From  Boston  to  Providence  is  a  pleasant  route ; "  "  That  you 
have  wronged  me,  doth  appear  in  this." 

Note.  The  noun  is  often  called  a  substantive.  All  phrases  01 
clauses,  used  as  nouns,  are  called  substantive  phrases  or  clauses. 

What  is  a  noun  ?  Into  how  many  classes  are  nouns  divided  ? 
What  is  a  proper  noun  ?  What  is  a  common  noun  ?  A  collective 
noun  ?    An  abstract  noun  ?    A  verbal  noun  ? 


LESSON   XII. 

PRONOUNS. 

A  pronoun  is  a  word  which  takes  the  place  of  a 
noun. 

Note.  The  pronoun  is  used  to  represent  an  object  as  having 
Deen  previously  mentioned,  or  as  having  some  relation  to  the 
speaker. 

Pronouns  ate  divided  into  three  classes, — per- 
sonal, relative,  and  interrogative. 

A  personal  pronoun  is  used  both  to  represent  a 
noun  and  to  show  whether  it  is  of  the  first,  second, 
or  third  person. 

I  (plural,  we}  is  of  the  first  person  ;  thou 
(plural,  ye  or  you)  is  of  the  second  person ;  he, 
4 


38  FIRST  LESSONS 

she,  and  ft,  (plural,  they,*)  are  of  the  third  person, 
masculine,  feminine,  and  neuter,  respectively. 

When  self  (plural,  selves)  is  added  to  the  personal  pronouns, 
they  are  called  compound  personal  pronouns ;  as,  myself,  thyself 
himself  herself  itself;  ourselves,  yourselves,  themselves. 

These  seldom,  if  ever,  are  used  as  the  subject;  they  may  he  in 
apposition  with  the  subject. 

It  is  often  used  in  a  vague  sense,  as  the  subject  of  verbs  descrip- 
tive of  the  weather ;  as,  "  It  rains ;  "  "  It  thunders."  It  is  used  as 
an  expletive,  or  when  we  wish  to  identify  a  person ;  as,  "  It  is 
pleasant  to  see  the  sun ;  "  "  It  is  Moses." 

A  relative  pronoun  is  used  to  represent  a  pre- 
ceding noun  or  pronoun,  called  the  antecedent;  as, 
"  Those  who  wish  for  favors,  must  assist  others." 

The  simple  relative  pronouns  are  who,  which,  and 
that. 

Who  is  used  to  represent  persons ;  which,  to 
represent  things,  and  that  to  represent  both  persons 
and  things. 

What,  whatever,  ivhatsoever,  whoever,  whosoever, 
whichever,  whichsoever,  are  called  compound  rela- 
tive pronouns,  because  they  represent  both  the 
antecedent  and  relative. 

The  compound  relative  pronouns  include  both  the  antecedent 
and  relative,  and  are  equivalent, — -what  to  that  which;  whatever  to 
any  thing  which,  whoever  or  whosoever,  to  any  one  who. 

The  compound  relatives  are  often  used,  both  as  adjectives  and 
pronouns  at  the  same  time ;  as,  "  He  will  furnish  whatever  book* 
you  need." 

Interrogative  pronouns  are  used  in  asking  ques- 
tions ;  as,  "  Who  came  ?  " 


IN   GRAMMAR.  39 

The  interrogative  pronouns  are  who,  which,  and 
what.  Who  is  used  in  inquiring  for  persons  ;  what 
and  which  for  things. 

Note.    Interrogative  pronouns  are  declined  like  relatives. 

What  is  a  pronoun?  Into  how  many  classes  are  pronouii3 
divided?  What  is  a  personal  pronoun?  Mention  the  personal 
pronouns.  Mention  the  compound  personal  pronouns.  What  is 
a  relative  pronoun?  Give  them.  Give  the  compound  relative 
pronouns.  What  is  an  interrogative  pronoun  ?  Which  are  the 
interrogative  pronouns  ? 


LESSON   XIII. 

NUMBER   OF  THE  NOUN   OR  PRONOUN. 

Number  is  that  property  of  a  noun  or  pronoun 
which  distinguishes  one  object  from  more  than  one. 

The  noun  or  pronoun  has  two  numbers,  —  the 
singular  and  plural. 

The  singular  number  denotes  but  one  object ;  as, 
Jwrse,  river,  nation. 

The  plural  denotes  more  than  one  object;  as, 
horses,  rivers,  nations. 

The  plural  of  nouns  is  regularly  formed,  — 

(1.)  By  adding  s,  when  the  singular  ends  with  a 
sound  that  can  unite  with  s  ;  as,  booh,  boohs  ;  tree, 
trees  ;  — 

(2.)  By  adding  es,  when  the  singular  ends  with 
a  sound  that  cannot  unite  with  s ;  as,  box,  boxes  ; 
cliwreh,  churches. 


FIRST  LESSONS 

Many  nouns   form  their  plurals  more   or  less 
irregularly. 

Note.  Many  nouns  ending  with  y,  preeeded  by  a  consonant,  or 
with  f  or  fe,  follow  the  general  rule  for  the  addition,  but  undergo 
<i  change  in  their  termination  5  as,  duty,  duties ;  fly,  Jlies  ;  hiife, 
hiives. 

When  y  is  preceded  by  a  vowel,  the  plural  is  formed  regularly ; 
as,  day,  days  ;  play,  plays. 

Nouns  ending  in  0,  preceded  by  a  vowel,  add  s.  Most  nouns 
ending  in  0,  preceded  by  a  consonant,  add  es ;  yet,  in  canto, 
grotto,  quarto,  junto,  duodecimo,  octavo,  solo,  halo,  tyro,  only  s  is 
added. 

The  following  nouns  form  the  plural  irregularly :  —  child,  chil- 
dren; man,  men;  woman,  women;  brother,  brothers,  or  brethren; 
louse,  lice ;  mouse,  mice ;  die,  dice,  (dies,  when  it  means  a  stamp ;, 
tooth,  teeth ;  foot,  feet ;  goose,  geese ;  penny,  pence,  or  pennies. 

Proper  nouns,  most-  abstract  nouns,  and  nouns  denoting  sub- 
stance, have  no  plural;  as,  Boston,  Philadelphia,  iron,  gold,  ice* 
patience,  idleness. 

Proper  nouns,  however,  may  take  the  plural  form  when  two 
iY  more  persons  are  classed  together ;  as,  "  the  Ccesars ;  "  "  the 
Scipios." 

When  a  title  is  prefixed  to  a  proper  name  so  as  to  form  ens 
complex  noun,  the  name  is  generally  varied  to  form  the  plural ;  as, 
"  the  Miss  Browns."  Usage  is,  however,  by  no  means  uniform. 
Many  writers  pluralize  the  title  and  not  the  name ;  as,  "  the  Misses 
Brown." 

Some  nouns  are  used  only  in  the  plural ;  as,  riches,  scissors, 
shears,  lungs. 

Some  are  alike  in  both  numbers ;  as,  deer,  sheep,  swine. 

Many  nouns  from  foreign  languages  retain  their  original  plurals. 
The  following  are  among  the  most  common  in  use ;  as,  antithesis, 
antitheses;  automaton,  automata;  axis,  axes;  bandit,  banditti;  beau, 
beaux;  cherub,  cherubim;  criterion,  criteria;  datum,  data;  desider 
atum,  desiderata ;  encomium,  encomia ;  erratum,  errata  ;  focus,  foci , 
formula,  formulas ;  hypothesis,  hypotheses;  madame,  mesdames;  ma- 
gus, magi ;  memorandum,  memoranda ;  monsieur,  messieurs ;  nebulck 
nebula  ;  phenomenon,  phenomena  ;  radius,  radii ;  seraph,  seraphim  j 
itimulus,  stimuli;  stratumf  strata. 


IN   GRAMMAR.  41 

In  compound  words,  if  the  -word  denoting  the  principal  idea  is 
placed  first,  it  is  changed  to  form  the  plural ;  as,  courts-martial 
but  if  placed  last,  the  change  takes  place  at  the  end  of  the  word  j 
as,  hand-fuls. 

The  plural  of  the  pronouns  is  formed  irregularly ;  as,  It  we , 
thou,  ye. 

What  is  number  ?  How  many  numbers  has  a  noun  or  pronoun  ? 
What  does  the  singular  denote  ?  What  does  the  plural  denote  ? 
Give  the  general  rules  for  the  formation  of  the  plural.  (Read  care 
fully  t)  e  particular  rules.) 


LESSON   XIV. 

GENDER   OF  THE   NOUN   OR  PRONOUN. 

Gender  is  a  distinction  of  nouns  or  pronouns  in 
regard  to  sex. 

There  are  three  genders,  —  the  masculine,  femi- 
nine, and  neuter. 

Nouns  or  pronouns  which  denote  males  are  of 
the  masculine  gender ;  as,  man,  heroes,  he. 

Nouns  or  pronouns  which  denote  females  are  of 
the  feminine  gender ;  as,  girl,  women,  she. 

Nouns  or  pronouns  which  denote  objects  without 
life,  are  of  the  neuter  gender;  as,  tree,  it;  fow&rs, 
they. 

Nouns  which  are  equally  applicable  to  a  male  or  female,  are 
sometimes  said  to  be  of  the  common  gender  /  as,  parent,  teacher. 
But  such  nouns  must  be  either  masculine  or  feminine,  and  the  time 
gender  may  generally  be  determined  by  the  connection. 

By  a  figure  of  speech,  (personification,)  inanimate  objects  are 
spoken  of  as  male  or  female.  Thus,  in  speaking  of  a  ship,  we  say 
"Sh*  sails." 

4* 


42  fir?t  lessons 

There  are  three  methods  of  distinguishing  the 
sexes :  — 

(1.)   By  using  different  words ;  — 

Examples.  Bachelor,  maid;  beau,  belle;  boar,  sow;  boy,  girl; 
brother,  sister;  buck,  doe;  bull,  cow;  cock,  hen;  drake,  duck;  earl, 
zountess ;  father,  mother ;  gander,  goose  ;  horse,  mare ;  husband, 
wife ;  king,  queen ;  lad,  lass ;  lord,  lady ;  male,  female ;  man,  wo- 
man; nephew,  niece;  ram,  ewe;  son,  daughter;  stag,  hind;  uncle, 
aunt ;  wizard,  witch. 

(2.)   By  a  difference  of  termination ;  — 

Examples.  Abbot,  abbess ;  actor,  actress ;  administrator,  admin- 
istratrix;  adulterer,  adulteress;  ambassador,  ambassadress;  author, 
authoress ;  baron,  baroness ;  bridegroom,  b?*ide  ;  benefactor,  benefac- 
tress ;  count,  countess ;  dauphin,  dauphiness ;  deacon,  deaconess ; 
director,  directress;  duke,  duchess;  emperor,  empress;  executor, 
executrix;  governor,  governess;  heir,  heiress;  hero,  heroine;  hun- 
ter, huntress ;  host,  hostess ;  instructor,  instructress ;  jew,  Jewess  ; 
landgrave,  landgravine  ;  lion,  lioness ;  marquis,  marchioness ;  moni- 
tor, monitress  ;  patron,  patroness  ;  poet,  poetess  ;  priest,  priestess  ; 
pnnce,  princess;  prophet,  prophetess ;  shepherd,  shepherdess ;  testa- 
tor, testatrix ;  tiger,  tigress ;  tutor,  tutoress ;  widower,  widow. 

(  3.)   By  prefixes  and  suffixes. 

Examples.  Landlord,  landlady ;  gentleman,  gentlewoman  ;  pea- 
cock, neahen ;  fte-goat,  she-goat ;  maw-servant,  maid-servant ;  male 
child,  female-child ;  cocZr-sparrow,  fteTi-sparrow. 

Personal  pronouns  of  the  first  and  second  person  have  no  form 
to  indicate  gender. 

Those  of  the  third  person  have  a  distinct  form  for  each  gender ; 
as,  he,  masculine ;  she,  feminine ;  it,  neuter. 

What  is  gender  ?  How  many  genders  are  there  ?  What  nouns 
or  pronouns  are  of  the  masculine  gender  ?  What  are  of  the  femi- 
nine ?  What  of  the  neuter  ?  How  many  methods  of  distinguish 
ing  the  sexes  are  there  ?  What  is  the  first  ?  The  second  ?  Tb.« 
third? 


[UtilVEKSIT" 

IN   GRAMMAR.    V,     /*  A         c^odS   ^  k 


LESSON   XV. 

PERSON  OF  THE  NOUN  OR  PRONOUN. 

Note.  This  lesson  is  to  be  studied  in  connection  with  the  per 
son  of  the  subject.  ' 

Person  is  that  property  of  a  noun  or  pronoun 
which  shows  its  relation  to  the  speaker. 

A  noun  or  pronoun  must  represent  either  the  speaker,  the  person 
spoken  to,  or  the  person  or  thing  spoken  of. 

There  are  three  persons,  —  the  first,  second,  and 
third. 

The  first  person  denotes  the  speaker ;  as,  "  I, 
John,  saw." 

The  second  person  denotes  the  person  spoken  to ; 
as,  "  Children,  obey  your  parents." 

The  third  person  denotes  the  person  or  thing 
spoken  of;  as,  "Thomas  did  not  come;"  "  The 
harvest  is  abundant." 

Nouns  in  the  first  and  second  persons  are  never  used  as  the  sub 
ject  or  object  of  a  verb,  but  may  be  in  apposition  with  either. 

It  is  the  appropriate  office  of  the  personal  pronouns  to  denote 
person. 

What  is  person  ?  How  many  persons  are  there  ?  What  does 
the  first  person  denote  ?    The  second  ?    The  third  ? 


44  FIRST   LESSONS 


LESSON    XVI. 

THE  CASE  OF  THE  XOUX  OR  PRONOUN. 

Case  denotes  the  relation  of  a  noun  or  pronoun 
to  other  words. 

There  are  three  cases,  —  the  nominative,  posses- 
sive, and  objective. 

The  nominative  case  is  the  simplest  form  of  the 
noun  or  pronoun,  and  is  commonly  used  as  the  sub- 
ject of  a  proposition ;  as,  "  George  speaks ; "  "  The 
door  was  shut." 

Besides  being  the  subject  of  a  proposition,  the  nominative  case 
may  be  nsed,  1st,  as  the  attribute  of  a  proposition ;  2d,  it  may  be 
used  to  identify  the  subject;  3d,  it  may  be  independent  of  any 
other  word. 

The  possessive  case  denotes  the  relation  of  prop- 
erty or  possession ;  as,  "  DavioTs  harp." 

The  possessive  case  of  nouns  is  formed  by  adding 
an  apostrophe  ( ' )  and  the  letter  s  to  the  nominative  ; 
as,  man9 8 j  men's. 

"When  the  plural  ends* in  «,  the  apostrophe  only  is 
added ;  as,  boys\ 

So,  sometimes  when  the  singular  ends  in  the  sound  of  s  or  z,  the 
apostrophe  only  is  added  •  as,  "  Moses'  law." 

The  possessive  case  of  the  personal  pronouns  is  formed  irregu 
larly;  as,  I,  my,  or  mine;  thou,  thy,  or  thine;  he,  his;  she,  her,  or 
hers. 

The  possessives,  mine,  thine,  hers,  ours,  yours,  and  theirs,  are  used 
when  the  object  possessed  is  understood.  Hence  they  have  the 
construction  of  the  noun ;  as,  ■  Mine  is  a  pleasant  task." 

When  a  noun  or  pronoun  follows  a  transitive  verb 
or  a  preposition,  it  is  in  the  objective  case ;  as, 


IN   GRAMMAR. 


45 


"Thomas  opened  his  knife;"  "The  bird  sat  on 
the  tree" 

The  objective  case  of  the  norm  is  the  same  in  form  as  the 
nominative  ;  but  the  objective  case  of  a  personal  pronoun,  except 
t£,  is  unlike  the  nominative;  as,  J,  me;  thou,  thee;  hey  him;  she, 
her. 

DECLENSION  OF  NOUNS  AND  PRONOUNS. 

The  declension  of  a  noun  or  pronoun  is  its  varia- 
tion to  denote  number  and  case. 


EXAMPLES. 

Declension    of  Nouns. 

1.    Boy. 

\ 

Nom. 
Poss. 
Obj. 

Sing. 
Boy, 
Boy's, 
Boy. 

Plur. 

Boys, 
Boys', 
Boys. 

v 

2.    Fly. 

Nom. 
Poss. 
Obj. 

Sing. 
Fly, 
Fly's, 
Fly. 

8.    John. 

Pint. 

Flies, 
Flies', 
Flies. 

Nom. 
Poss. 
Obj. 

Sing. 
John, 
John's, 
John. 

Flur. 
Wanting. 

4.    Goodness. 

Nom, 
Poss. 
Obj. 

Sing. 
Goodness, 
Goodness', 
Goodness. 

Plur. 
Wanting. 

46 


FIRST   LESSONS 


Declension  of  Personal  Pronouns, 
First  Person. 
Sing.  Plus. 

Norn.  I,  We, 

Poss.  My  or  mine,        Our  or  ours, 

Obj.  Me.  Us. 


Second  Person. 

Sing. 

Plur. 

Nom. 

Thou, 

Ye  or  you, 

Poss. 

Thy  or  thine 

,        Your  or  Your^ 

Obj. 

Thee. 

You. 

Third  Person. 

Masculine. 

Sing. 

Plur 

Nom. 

He, 

They, 

Poss. 

His, 

Their  or  theirs, 

Obj. 

Him. 

Them. 

Third  Person. 

Feminine. 

Sing. 

Plur. 

Nom. 

She, 

They, 

Poss. 

Her  or  hers, 

Their  or  theirs. 

Obj. 

Her. 

Them. 

Third  Person. 

Neuter. 

Sing 

Plur. 

Nom. 

It, 

They, 

Poss. 

Its. 

Their  or  theirs, 

Obj. 

It. 

Them. 

Relative  and  Interrogative  Pronouns. 

Sing.  $  Plur.  Sing.  $  Plw 

Nom.  Who,  Which, 

Poss.  Whose,  Whose, 

Obj.  *  Whom.  Which. 

That,  what,  have  no  variation. 


IN   GRAMMAR.  47 

What  does  case  denote?  How  many  cases  are  there?  What 
is  the  nominative  case  ?  "What  does  the  possessive  case  denote  ? 
How  is  the  possessive  formed?  What  is  the  objective  case? 
What  is  the  declension  of  a  noun  or  pronoun?  Repeat  tht 
examples. 


LESSON    XVII. 


ADJECTIVE   WORDS. 


Note.  All  words  which  have  the  construction  of  the  adjective, 
are  here  considered  under  the  head  of  "Adjective  Words,"  what- 
ever may  be  their  particular  classification. 

An  adjective  is  a  word  used  to  limit  or  qualify  th© 
meaning  of  a  noun. 

All  adjective  words  are  divided  into  two  classes,— 
limiting  and  qualifying. 

I. — LIMITING  ADJECTIVES. 

A  limiting  adjective  is  used  to  define  or  restrict 
ft    the  meaning  of  a  noun,  without  expressing  any  of 
its  qualities  ;    as,  "  the  house  ; "    "five  books ;  " 
"Arabian  horses." 

Aeticles.  The  particular  limiting  adjectives  the,  and  a 
or  an'  are  called  articles. 

The  is  called  the  definite  article,  because  it  points  out 
lome  particular  thing  ;  as,  "  the  desk ; "  "  the  sun." 

A  or  an  is  called  an  indefinite  article,  because  it  does  not 
point  out  any  particular  thing ;  as,  "  a  pen ; "  "  an  orchard." 

An  is  used  before  a  vowel  sound,  and  a  before  a  consonant  sound ; 
v.  " an  apple  ;  "  "a  pin." 


48  FIRST   LESSONS 

I 

Pronominal  Adjectives.     Those  limiting  adjectives 
which  may,  without  the  use  of  the  article,  represent  a  noun 
-  when  understood,   are  called  pronominal  adjectives      as, 
"  That  [book]  is  his ;  this  is  yours." 

Qualifying  adjectives  may  represent  a  noun  when  understood, 
but  the  article  must  be  prefixed ;  as,  "  The  good  are  happy." 

The  principal  pronominal  adjectives  are,  —  this,  that,  these,  those, 
former,  latter,  which,  what,  each,  every,  either,  neither,  some,  one, 
none,  any,  all,  such,  many,  muck. 

When  such  adjectives  represent  a  noun  understood,  they  are 
generally  called  irronouns.  They  may  more  properly  be  called 
pronominal  adjectives  used  as  nouns  ;  as,  "  This  is  my  book."  Thd 
articles  never  represent  a  noun  understood. 

Numeral  Adjectives.  Numeral  adjectives  are  used 
to  express  number;  as,  one,  two^three,  &c. 

Numerals  are  divided  into  two  classes :  — 

Cardinal;  as,  one,  two,  three,  four,  &c. ;  — 

Ordinal ;  as,  first,  second,  third,  fourth,  &c. 

Note.  Adjectives,  which  denote  time  or  place,  are  called  cir 
cumstantial ;  as,  "a  morning  walk;"  '.'an  eastern  custom;"  "a 
Turkish  vessel." 

II.  —  QUALIFYING  ADJECTIVES. 

A  qualifying  adjective  is  one  which  limits  the 
meaning  of  a  noun,  by  denoting  some  property  or 
quality ;  as,  "  a  virtuous  man ; "  "a  running 
horse." 

To  this  class  of  adjectives  belong  the  participles, 
which  have  the  signification  of  the  verb  and  the 
construction  of  the  adjective. 

When  the  participle  is  placed  before  the  noun  which  it  modules, 
it  is  called  a  participial  adjective;  as,  "  The  Hsing  sun."  When  i% 
is  placed  after  the  noun,  and  itself  limited  by  other  words,  it  is 
parsed  as  a  participle ;  as,  "  The  sun  rising  in  the  east." 


IN   GRAMMAR.  49 

COMPARISON   OF   ADJECTIVES. 

When  different  objects  are  compared  with  each 
other,  the  adjective  expressing  the  property  by 
f  means  of  which  they  are  compared,  undergoes  a 
change  called  comparison. 

There  are  three  degrees  of  comparison,  —  tho 
positive,  comparative,  and  superlative. 

The  positive  simply  denotes  a  quality ;  as,  right- 
eous, pleasant. 

The  comparative  shows  that  one  of  two  objects 
possesses  a  quality  in  a  higher  degree  than  the 
other ;  as,  "  This  tree  is  taller  than  that." 

The  superlative  shows  that  one  of  several  objects 
possesses  a  quality  in  the  highest  degree,  when  com- 
pared with  all  the  rest ;  as,  "  That  pine  is  the  tall- 
est tree  in  the  grover." 

The  comparative  of  monosyllables  is  regularly 
formed  by  adding  r  or  er,  and  the  superlative  by 
adding  st  or  est,  to  the  positive;  as,  wise,  wiser, 
wisest;  bald,  holder,  boldest. 

The  comparative  of  most  adjectives  of  more  than 
one  syllable,  is  formed  by  prefixing  more  or  less, 
and  the  superlative,  by  prefixing  most  or  least,  to 
the  positive ;  as,  industrious,  more  industrious,  most 
industrious. 

The  following  adjectives  are  compared  irregularly :  —  good, 
letter,  best;  bad,  worse,  worst;  ill,  worse,  worst;  little,  less  or  lesser, 
aast;  much,  more,  most;  many,  more,  most;  far,  farther,  farthest; 
near,  nearer,  nearest  or  next ;  late,  later,  latest  or  last ;  old,  ojkr  or 
elder,  oldest  or  eldest 

5         d 


50  FIKST  LESSONS 

i 

What  is  an  adjective  ?  How  are  adjectives  divided  ?  What  is 
a  limiting  adjective  ?  What  are  the,  a,  and  an,  called?  Which  is 
the  definite  article  ?  Which  the  indefinite  ?  What  are  pronominal 
adjectives  ?  What  are  numeral  adjectives  ?  What  is  a  qualifying 
adjective  ?  To  what  class  of  adjective  words  does  the  participle 
belong?  When  is  the  participle  strictly  an  adjective.  What  is 
comparison  ?  How  many  degrees  of  comparison  are  there  ?  Name 
them.  What  does  the  positive  denote  ?  The  comparative  ?  The 
superlative?  How  are  the  comparative  and  superlative  degrees 
of  monosyllables  formed  ?  How  are  the  comparative  and  super- 
lative degrees  of  most  adjectives  of  more  than  one  syllable  formed  ? 


LESSON    XVIII. 

CLASSES    OF    VERBS.. 

A  verb  is  a  word  which  expresses  being,  action, 
or  state  ;  as,  be,  read,  sleep,  is  loved. 

The  being,  action,  or  state,  may  be  affirmed, 
assumed,  or  used  abstractedly  ;  as,  "  George  runs;  " 
"  George  running  ;  "  "  to  run" 

Verbs  are  divided,  according  to  their  use,  into 
transitive  and  intransitive.  * 

A  transitive  verb  requires  the  addition  of  an 
object  to  complete  its  meaning  ;  as,  "  James  struck 
John." 

An  intransitive  verb  does  not  require  the  addition 
of  an  object  to  complete  its  meaning ;  as,  "  The 
horse  runs." 

Verbs  are  divided,  according  to  their  form,  into 
regular  and  irregular. 


IN    GRAMMAR. 


51 


A  regular  verb  is  one  in  which  the  past  tense 
and  past  participle  are  formed  by  adding  d  or  ed  to 
the  present  ;  as,  love,  loved,  loved ;  gain,  gained, 
gained. 

An  irregular  verb  is  one  in  which  the  past  tense 
and  past  participle  are  formed  in  some  other  way  ; 
as,  see,  saw,  seen  ;  write,  wrote,  ivritten. 

The  present,  past,  and  past  participle  of  a  verb 
are  called  its  principal  parts. 

The  following  list  contains  the  principal  parts  of 
the  irregular  verbs  :  — 


Present. 

Past. 

Past  Participle. 

Abide, 

Abode, 

Abode. 

Am,    .      x 

Was, 

Been. 

Awake, 

Awoke,  r.* 

Awaked. 

Bear,  (to  brine/ forth,} 

i  Bore, 

Born. 

Bear,  (to  carry,) 

Bore, 

Borne. 

Beat, 

Beat, 

Beaten,  beat. 

Begin, 

Began, 

Begun. 

Bend, 

Bend,  r. 

Bent. 

Bereave, 

Bereft,  r. 

Bereft,  r. 

Beseech, 

Besought, 

Besought. 

Bid, 

Bid,  bade, 

Bidden,  bid. 

Bind, 

Bound, 

Bound. 

Bite, 

Bit, 

Bitten,  bit. 

Bleed, 

Bled, 

Bled. 

Blow, 

Blew, 

Blown. 

Break, 

Broke, 

Broken. 

Breed, 

Bred, 

Bred. 

Bring, 

Brought, 

Brought 

Build, 

Built,  r. 

Built 

Burn, 

Burnt,  r. 

Burnt,  r. 

♦Those  verbs  whose  past  tense  or  past  participle  is  followed  by  R.,  haTi 
also  a  regular  form  ;  as,  awoke  or  awaked 


52 


FIRST    LESSONS 


Pnsent. 

Past. 

Past  ParticipU 

Burst, 

Burst, 

Burst. 

Buy, 

Bought, 

Bought. 

Cast, 

Cast, 

Cast. 

Catch, 

Caught,  R. 

Caught,  e. 

Chide, 

Chid, 

Chidden,  chic 

Choose, 

Chose, 

Chosen. 

Cleave,  Jr  adhere,) 

Cleaved, 

Cleaved. 

Cleave,  {to  split,) 

Clove,  cleft, 

Cloven. 

Cling, 

Clung, 

Clung. 

Clothe, 

Clad,  e.       * 

Clad,  e. 

Come, 

Came, 

Come. 

Cost, 

Cost, 

Cost. 

Creep, 

Crept, 

Crept. 

Crow, 

Crew,  e. 

Crowed. 

Cut, 

Cut, 

Cut. 

Dare, 

Durst, 

Dared. 

Deal, 

Dealt,  r. 

.   Dealt,  e. 

Dig, 

Dug,  E, 

Dug,  E. 

Do, 

Did, 

Done. 

Draw, 

Drew, 

Drawn. 

Dream, 

Dreamt,  b. 

Dreamt,  e. 

Drink, 

Drank, 

Drunk,  drank. 

Drive, 

Drove, 

Driven. 

Dwell, 

Dwelt,  e. 

Dwelt,  e.  , 

Eat, 

Ate,  eat, 

Eaten. 

Fall, 

Fell, 

Fallen. 

Feed, 

Fed, 

Fed. 

Feel, 

Felt, 

Felt. 

Fight, 

Fought, 

Fought. 

Find, 

Found, 

Found. 

Flee, 

Fled, 

Fled. 

Fling, 

Flung, 

Flung. 

Fly, 

Flew, 

Flown. 

Forsake, 

Forsook, 

Forsaken. 

Freeze, 

Froze, 

Frozen. 

Freight, 

Freighted, 

Fraught,  r. 

Get, 

Got, 

Got,  gotten, 

Gild, 

Gilt,  e. 

Gilt,  r. 

IN   GRAMMAR. 

Presen* 

Past. 

Past  Participle. 

Gird, 

Girt,  r. 

Girt,  R. 

Give, 

Gave, 

Given. 

Go, 

Went, 

Gone. 

Grave, 

Graved 

-Graven,  r. 

Grind, 

Ground, 

Ground. 

Grow, 

Grew, 

Grown. 

Hang, 

Hung, 

Hung. 

Have, 

Had, 

Had. 

Hear, 

Heard, 

Heard. 

Heave, 

Hove,  r. 

Hoven,  r. 

Hew, 

Hewed, 

Hewn,  r. 

Hide, 

Hid, 

Hidden,  hi* 

Hit, 

Hit, 

Hit. 

Hold, 

Held, 

Held. 

Hurt, 

Hurt, 

Hurt. 

Keep, 

Kept, 

Kept. 

Kneel, 

Knelt,  r. 

Knelt,  r. 

Knit, 

Knit,  r. 

Knit,  r. 

Know, 

Knew, 

Known. 

Lade, 

Laded, 

Laden. 

Lay, 

Laid, 

Laid. 

Lead, 

Led, 

Led. 

Leave, 

Left, 

Left. 

Lend, 

Lent, 

Lent. 

Let, 

Let, 

Let* 

Lie,  (to  reclintiJ 

Lay, 

Lain. 

Light, 

Lh,  it. 

Lit,  r. 

Load, 

Loaded, 

.    Laden,  r. 

Lose, 

Lost, 

Lost. 

Make, 

Made, 

Made^ 

Mean, 

Meant, 

Meant 

Meet, 

Met, 

Met. 

Mow, 

Mowed, 

Mown,  r. 

Pay, 

Paid, 

Paid. 

Pen,  (to  enclose,) 

Pent,  r. 

Pent,  r. 

Put, 

Put, 

Put.    - 

Quit, 

Quit,  r. 

Quit,  r. 

Re*d, 

Read, 

Read. 

53 


5* 


54 


FIRST    LESSONS 


Present, 

fast. 

Past  Particrr& 

Rend, 

Rent, 

Rent. 

Rid, 

Rid, 

Rid. 

Ride, 

Rode, 

Ridden. 

Ring, 

Rang,  rune 

Rung. 

Rise, 

Rose, 

Risen. 

Rive, 

Rived, 

Riven. 

Run, 

Ran, 

Run. 

Saw 

Sawed, 

Sawn,  R. 

Say 

Said, 

Said. 

See, 

Saw, 

Seen. 

Seek, 

Sought, 

Sought. 

Seeth* 

Sod,  k. 

Sodden. 

Sell, 

Sold, 

Sold. 

Send, 

Sent, 

Sent. 

Set, 

Set, 

Set. 

Sit, 

Sat, 

Sat. 

Shake, 

Shook, 

Shaken. 

Shape, 

Shaped, 

Shapen,  it. 

Shave, 

Shaved, 

Shaven,  r. 

Shear, 

Sheared, 

Shorn,  B. 

Shed, 

Shed, 

Shed. 

Shine, 

Shone, 

Shone. 

Shoe, 

Shod, 

Shod. 

Shoot, 

Shot, 

Shot. 

Show,           * 

Showed, 

Shown. 

Shred, 

Shred, 

Shre<* 

Shrink, 

Shrunk,  shrank. 

Shrunk. 

Shut, 

Shut, 

Shut. 

Sing, 

Sang,  sung, 

Sung. 

Sink, 

Sunk,  sank, 

Sunk. 

Slay, 

Slew, 

Slain. 

Sleep, 

Slept, 

Slept. 

Slide, 

Slid, 

Slidden,  slid. 

Sling, 

Slung, 

Slung. 

Slink, 

Slunk, 

Slunk. 

Slit, 

Slit, 

Slit,  b. 

Smite 

Smote, 

Smitten,  smit. 

Sow,  (to  scatter,) 

Sowed, 

Sown,  p.. 

IN   GRAMMAR. 

*  5i 

Present 

Past. 

Past  Participle 

Speak, 

Spoke, 

Spoken. 

Speed* 

Sped, 

Sped. 

Spell, 

Spelt,  r. 

Spelt,  r. 

Spend, 

Spent, 

Spent. 

Spill, 

Spilt,  r. 

Spilt,  r. 

Spin, 

Spun, 

Spun. 

Spit, 

Spit, 

Spit- 

Split, 

Split, 

Split. 

Spread, 

Spread, 

Spread. 

Spring, 

Sprang,  sprung, 

Sprung. 

Stand, 

Stood, 

Stood. 

Steal, 

Stole, 

Stolen. 

Stick, 

Stuck, 

Stuck. 

Sting, 

Stung, 

Stung. 

Stride, 

Strode,  strid, 

Stridden. 

Strike, 

Struck, 

Struck,  stricken. 

String, 

Strung, 

Strung. 

Strive, 

Strove, 

Striven. 

Strow  or  strew, 

S trowed  or  strewed, 

Strown,  strewn,  «. 

Swear, 

Swore, 

Sworn. 

Sweat, 

Sweat,  r. 

Sweat,  r. 

Sweep, 

Swept, 

S\*ept. 

Swell,             1 

Swelled, 

Swollen,  r. 

Swim, 

Swam,  swum, 

Swum. 

Swing. 

Swung, 

Swung. 

Take, 

Took, 

Taken. 

Teach, 

-  Taught, 

Taught. 

Tear, 

Tore, 

Torn. 

Tell, 

Told, 

Told. 

Think, 

Thought, 

Thought. 

Thrive, 

Throve, 

Thriven. 

Throw, 

Threw, 

Thrown. 

Thrust, 

Thrust, 

Thrust. 

Tread, 

Trod, 

Trodden,  trod. 

Wax, 

'Waxed, 

Waxen,  R. 

Wear, 

Wore, 

Worn. 

»    Weave, 

Wove, 

Woven. 

Weep, 

Wept, 

Wept. 

56  *  FIRST   LESSONS 


Present. 

Past. 

* 

Past  ParticipU. 

Wet, 

Wet,  r. 

Wet,  r. 

Whet, 

Whet,.R. 

Whet,  r.    | 

Win, 

Won, 

Won. 

Wind, 

Wound, 

Wound. 

Work, 

Wrought, 

Wrought,  r. 

Wring, 

Wrung, 

Wrung. 

Write, 

Wrote, 

Written. 

AUXILIARIES. 

An  auxiliary  verb  is  one  which  is  employed  in 
conjugating  other  verbs.  The  auxiliaries  are,  do, 
be,  have,  shall,  will,  may,  can,  must. 

1.  The  auxiliaries  are  used  to  form  the  modes  and  tenses  of  othei 
verbs. 

2.  They  give  peculiar  shades  of  meaning  to  the  modes  and  tenses 
in  which  they  are  used. 

Be  is  the  copula  ;  its  uses  have  been  explained. 

Do,  in  declarative  sentences,  denotes  emphasis. 

Have  den6tes  completion.    It  is  used  in  the  perfect  tenses. 

May  denotes  possibility  or  permission. 

Can  denotes  ability  or  power. 

Must  denotes  necessity  or  obligation. 

Shall  and  will,  in  general,  denote  futurity. 

Note.  In  declarative  sentences,  shall,  in  the  first  person,  and 
will,  in  the  second  and  third,  predict  or  express  determination ;  while 
wiU,  in  the  first,  and  shall,  in  the  second  and  third,  express  a  volition, 
or  promise.  In  interrogative  sentences,  the  above  order  in  the  use 
of  these  two  auxiliaries  is  reversed. 

3.  They  are  used  to  introduce  direct  interrogative  sentences ;  a?, 

"  Does  he  write  ?  "    u  May  we  go  ?  "  >. 

Note.  Do,  which  denotes  emphasis  in  declarative  sentences, 
denotes  merely  inquiry  in  interrogative  sentences ;  it  must  be  sup- 
plied in  the  latter,  where  it  would  not  be  usei  in  the  former  ;  as 
"  It  snows  ; "    "  Does  it  snow  ?  "  ♦ 


IN    GRAMMAR. 


57 


4.  They  are  used'  at  the^elose  of  an  elliptical  clause,  to  represent 
the  principal  verb  ;  as,  "  Ycu  must  write  as  he  does,  i.  e.,  writes." 

5.  The.  auxiliaries,  as  such,  have  only  two  tenses  ;  the  present  and 
the  past,  except  must,  which  has  no  variation.  They  may  be  thu? 
represented :  — 


Present, 


CONJUGATION   OF 

THE 

AUXILIARIES. 

Singular^ 

Plural. 

1st  Per. 

2d  Per. 

3d  Per 

1st  Pei 

.     2d  Per. 

3d  Per. 

/ 

Thou 

He 

We 

You 

They 

Am 

art 

is 

are 

are 

are 

Do 

dost 

does 

do 

do 

do 

Have 

hast 

has 

have 

have 

have 

Will 

wilt 

will 

will 

will 

will 

Shall 

shalt 

shall 

shall 

shall 

shall 

May 

mayst 

may 

may 

may 

may 

Can 

canst       * 

can 

can 

can 

can 

Must 

must 

must 

must 

must 

must 

'Was 

wast 

was 

were 

were 

were 

Did 

didst 

did 

did 

did 

did 

Had 

hadst 

had 

had 

had 

had 

Past,           -j  Would  wouldst  would  would  would  would 

Should  shouldst  should  should  should  should 

Might  mightst  might  might  might  might 

Could  couldst  could  could  could  could. 

Defective  verbs  are  those  in  which  some  of  the 
parts  are  wanting.  They  are,  beware,  quoth,  ought, 
and  all  the  auxiliaries  except  do,  be,  and  have. 
These,  when  used  as  principal  verbs,  have  all  their 
parts. 

What  is  a  verb  ?  How  may  the  being,  action,  or  state  be  used  ? 
How  are  verbs  divided  according  to  their  use  ?  What  is  a  transi 
tive  verb  ?  An  intransitive  verb  ?  How  are  verbs  divided  accord- 
ing to  their  form  ?  What  is  a  regular  verb  ?  *What  are  irregular 
verbs  ?  Which  are  the  principal  parts  of  verbs  ?  What  ftre  auxil 
iary  verbs  ?  What  are  the  princ'pal  uses  of  the  auxiliaries  ?  What 
are  defective  verbs  ? 


58  FIRST   LESSONS 

* 
LESSON    XIX. 
NUMBER,   PERSON,   AND   VOICE    OF   THE    VERB. 

The  number  and  person  of  the  verb  are  proper- 
ties which  show  its  agreement  with  the  subject. 
Like  the  subject,  the  verb  has  two  numbers  and 
three  persons. 

In  the  solemn  style,  the  second  person  singular  of  the  verb,  in  the 
present  tense,  is  formed  by  adding  st  or  est  to  the  first ;  but  in  the 
common  style,  it  ends  like  the  second  person  plural ;  the  third  per 
son  singular  is  formed  by  adding  s  or  es,  and  formerly  eth. 

■  Voice  is  applied  to  the  two  forms  of  the  transitive 
verb,  and  is  either  active  or  passive. 

The  active  voice  represents  the  subject  as  acting ; 
as,  "  John  struck  William. 

The  passive  voice  represents  the  subject  as  being 
acted  upon  ;  as,  "  William  was  struck  by  John." 

The  passive  verb  is  formed  by  adding  the  passive 
participle  of  a  transitive  verb  to  the  copula. 

Any  sentence  containing  a  transitive  verb  may  take  two  equiv- 
alent forms,  —  one  in  which  the  verb  is  in  the  active  voice,  and  the 
other  in  which  it  is  in  the  passive.  When  the  verb  is  in  the  pas- 
sive voice,  the  agent  is  in  the  objective  case  following  by ;  as, 
"  William  was  struck  by  John."  Sometimes  the  agent  is  omitted  ; 
as,  "  A  plot  was  discovered." 

What  is  meant  by  the  number  and  person  of  the  verb  ?  How  many 
numbers  and  persons  have  verbs  ?  WThat  is  voice  ?  How  many 
voices  are  there  ?  *  What  does  the  active  voice  represent  ?  What 
does  the*  passive  voice  represent  ?  How  is  the  passive  verb 
fonned  ? 


IN   GRAMMAR.  59 


LESSON    XX. 


MODE    OF    THE    VERB. 

Mode  shows  the  manner  in  which  an  attribute 
is  asserted  of  the  subject. 

There  are  commonly  reckoned  five  modes,  —  the 
indicative,  potential,  subjunctive,  imperative,  and 
infinitive. 

The  indicative  mode  asserts  a  thing  as  actually 
existing  ;  as,  "  James  is  rich;  "  "  George  writes" 

The  potential  mode  asserts  a  thing  as  possible, 
probable,  or  necessary  ;  as,  "  James  may  be  rich;*' 
"  George  must  write" 

The  subjunctive  mode  *asserts  a  thing  as  con- 
ditional  or  doubtful;  as,  "If  James  be  rich;" 
"  Should  George  write." 

The  imperative  mode  asserts  a  command,  an 
exhortation,  an  entreaty,  or  a  permission;  asy 
"  Write;  "  "  Go  thou ;  "  "  Be  satisfied." 

The  infinitive  *  represents  an  attribute  as  an 
abstract  noun  ;  as,  "  To  be  rich  ;  "  "  To  write" 

The  indicative,  potential,  and  imperative  modes  are  used  in  prin- 
cipal propositions.    The  subjunctive  is  always  used  in  subordinate 

*  The  infinitive  is  here  placed  among  the  modes,  because  it  has  been  thus 
ranked  by  common  consent ;  yet  it  is  as  really  a  participle  as  the  forms 
•which  bear  that  name.  It  does  not  assert  action  at  all,  and  therefore  cannot 
properly  be  said  to  have  mode.  It  is  the  simple  name  of  the  verl^  taken 
abstractly,  and  partakes  of  the  properties  of  the  noun  and  verb,  jusTas  the 
narticiple  partakes  of  the  properties  of  the  adjective  and  verb  Both  are 
used  in  abridged  propositions,  one  in  reducing  substantive,  and  the  other  in 
•educing  adjective  clauses. 


DO  FIRST   LESSON'S 

propositions,  and  the  infinitive  and  participles,  in  abridged  propo 
sitions. 

Note.  The  indicative  and  potential  modes  are  often  used  in 
subordinate  propositions.  The  imperative  mode  is  sometimes  made 
subordinate  in  direct  quotation;  as,  "God  said,  Let  there  be 
light.'* 

PARTICIPLES. 

A  participle  is  a  form  of  the  verb  by  which  the 
being,  action,  or  state,  is  used  as  an  adjective. 

The  participle  is  so  called,  because  it  participates,  of  the  proper- 
ties of  the  verb  and  adjective. 

There  are  two  participles,  —  the  present  and 
perfect ;  as,  reading,  having  read. 

These  two  participles  correspond  to  the  present  and  perfect 
tenses  in  each  of  the  three  grand  divisions  of  time. 

Transitive  verbs  have*  an  active  and  passive  par- 
ticiple. 

examples. 

ACTIVE.  PASSIVE. 

Present.    Loving,  Loved  or  being  loved. 

Perfect.    Having  loved,       Having  been  loved. 

Though  there  are  but  two  distinct  participles, 
there  are  three  different  forms  called  participles,  — 
the  present,  the  past,  and  the  perfect 

The  past  participle  is  never  used  except  in  combination  with 
some  modification  of  have,  to  form  the  perfect  tenses  ;  as,  have 
loved,  had  loved,  to  have  loved,  having  loved.  It  belongs  to  all  verbs 
transitive  and  intransitive.  It  has  an  active  signification,  denotes 
past  time,  but  is  never  used,  like  the  other  forms,  to  limit  a  noun 
by  expressing  an  assumed  attribute.  Its  entire  use  is,  to  aid  in  the 
formation  of  the  tenses.  The  past  participle  is,  however,  identical 
in  form  with  the  present  passive  participle,  when  used  without 
being.    Mark  the  difference  in  the  following  examples  :  — "  Th# 


IN   GRAMMAR.  61 

boy  has  respected  the  wishes  of  his  parents  ; "  u  The  boy  lives 
(being)  respected  by  all."  In  the  last  example,  "respected  "  ha?  a 
passive  signification,  denotes  present  time,  and  limits  "  boy "  fry 
assuming  (not  affirming)  that  he  is  in  a  certain  state.  This  last  is 
called  the  passive  participle  of  "  respect ;  "  respecting  being  the  cor 
responding  active  participle.  Intransitive  verbs  have  no  passive 
participle. 

The  present  active  participle  denotes  an  action 
or  state  present  but  unfinished  at  the  time  denoted 
by  the  principal  verb  ;  as,  "  We  found  him  sitting 
in  a  chair." 

The  present  passive  participle  denotes  the  recep- 
tion of  an  act,  which  is  present  at  the  time  denoted 
by  the  principal  verb  ;  as,  "  He  lives  loved  by  all." 

The  perfect  active  participle  denotes  an  action  or 
state  past  and  completed  at  the  time  denoted  by  the 
principal  verb  ;  as,  "  Saving  finished  his  speech, 
he  sat  down." 

The  perfect  passive  participle  denotes  the  recep- 
tion of  an  act  past  and  completed  at  the  time 
denoted  by  the  principle  verb  ;  as,  "  Having  been 
driven  from  home,  he  enlisted  in  the  army." 

Participles,  like  the  subordinate  clauses  for  which  they  stand, 
denote  a  time  present  ovpast  in  relation  to  the  principal  verb,  and 
not  in  relation  to  the  speaker.  Hence  the  present  participle  may 
denote,  with  reference  to  the  speaker,  present,  past,  or  future  time. 
So  the  perfect  participle  may  denote  an  act  completed  in  past, 
present,  or  future  time.  '  It  is  worthy  of  notice,  that  each  grand 
division  of  time  has  two  tenses,  —  &  present  and  a  perfect;  and  that 
this  distinction  exists  in  all  the  verbal  forms,  the  infinitive  and 
participles  as  well  as  the  modes  properly  so  called.  4 

A  participle,  like   an  adjective,  may  be  either 
assumed  or  predicated  of  a  noun ;  as,  "A  boat 
6 


62  FIRST   LESSONS 

sailing  on  the  water  is  a  pleasant  object ;  "  u  The 
boat  is  sailing  on  the  water." 

An  assumed  participle,  with  the  words  depending 
upon  it,  is  equivalent  to  a  subordinate  clause. 

The  active  participle  wThen  predicated,  constitutes, 
with  the  copula,  the  progressive  form  of  the  verb  ; 
as,  "  The  farmer  vjas  reaping" 

The  passive  participle,  when  predicated,  forms, 
with  the  copula,  the  jussive  verb  ;  as,  "  His  expec- 
tations were  realized". 

What  does  mode  show  ?  How  many  modes  are  there  ?  What 
is  the  indicative  mode  ?  The  potential  ?  The  subjunctive  ?  The 
imperative  ?  The  infinitive  ?  What  is  a  participle  ?  How  many 
participles  are  there  ?  How  many  participles  have  transitive  verbs  ? 
How  many  forms  called  participles  are  there  ?  What  does  the 
present  active  participle  denote  ?  What  does  the  present  passive 
participle  denote  ?  What  does  the  perfect  active  participle  denote  ? 
What  does  the  perfect  passive  participle  denote  ?  How  may  par- 
ticiples be  used  ?  What  does  the  active  participle  constitute, 
when  predicated  ?    What  the  passive  ? 


LESSON    XXI. 

TENSE   OF  THE   VERB. 

Tense  denotes  the  time  of  an  action  or  event. 

There  are  three  divisions  of  time,  —  the  past, 
the  present,  and  the  future. 

Eajh  division  has  two  tenses,  —  an  absolute  and 
a  relative.  There  are,  therefore,  six  tenses,  —  three 
absolute 'and  three  relative. 


IN    GRAMMAR.  63 

The  absolute  tenses  take  the  name  of  the  division  to  which  they 
belong,  namely,  the  present  tense,  the  past  tense,  and  the  future 
tense. 

The  relative  tenses  add  to  the  name  of  the  division  the  word 
v  perfect ; "  — present  perfect,  past  perfect,  future  perfect, 

,  The  present  tense  denotes  present  time ;  as,  "I 
write" 

The  present  perfect  tense  denotes  past  time 
completed  in  the  present ;  as,  "I  have  written" 

The  past  tense  denotes  past  time  ;  as,  "  I  wrote" 

The  past  perfect  tense  denotes  past  time  com- 
pleted in  the  past ;  as  "  I  had  written." 

The  future  tense  denotes  future  time ;  as,  "  I 
shall  write" 

The  future  perfect  tense  denotes  a  future  time 
completed  in  the  future  ;  as,  "  I  shall  have  zvritten" 

Note.  It  is  believed  that  the  above  division  of  the  tenses  better 
represents  the  different  relations  of  time  than  the  old ;  but  if  any 
prefer  the  old,  the  following  table  will  enable  them  to  use  it.     i 

Old  division.  New  division.  Examples. 

Present  tense,  Present  tense,  I  write. 

Imperfect  tense,  Past  tense,  I  wrote, 

Perfect  tense,  Present  perfect  tense,    I  have  written, 

Pluperfect  tense,  Past  perfect  tense,         I  had  written, 

First  future  tense,         Future  tense,  I  shall  or  will  write, 

Second  future  tense.     Future  perfect  tense.     I  shall  have  written. 

FORMS   OF    THE   VERB. 

There  are  three  different  forms  of  the  verb,  in  the  activo 
voice,  namely,  the  common,  the  emphatic,  the  progressive , 
the  passive  has  but  one  form. 

COMMON   FORM. 

The  common  form  denotes  a  customary  act ;  its  tenses  are 
thus  formed :  — 


64 


FIRST  LESSONS 


Absolute 

Tenses. 


Relative 
Tenses. 


INDICATIVE   MOOD. 

The  present  is  the  first  or  simple  form  of  the  vert) , 
as,  love. 

The  past  is  the  second  form  of  the  verb  ;  as,  loved. 

The  future  is  formed  by  joining  to  the  simple  verb 
the  auxiliary  shall  or  will;  as,  shall  love,  will  love. 

The  present  perfect  is  formed  by  joining  the  present 
tense  of  have  to  the  past  participle  of  the  verb  ;  as, 
have  loved. 

The  past  perfect  is  formed  by  joining  the  past  tense 
of  have  to  the  past  participle ;  as,  had  loved. 

The  future  perfect  is  formed  by  joining  the  future 
tense  of  have  to  the  past  participle  ;  as,  shall  have  loved. 


Absolute 
Tenses. 


Relative 


POTENTIAL   MODE. 

The  present  potential  is  formed  by  joining  the  pres- 
ent tense  of  may",  can,  or  must  to  the  simple  or  first 
form  of  the  verb  ;  as,  may,  can,  or  must  love. 

The  past  potential  is  formed  by  joining  the  past 
tenses  of  may,  can,  will,  or  shall,  to  the  simple  form  of 
the  verb ;  as,  might,  could,  would,  or  should  love. 

The  present  perfect  is  formed  by  joining  the  piesent 
potential  of  have  to  the  past  participle  ;  as,  may,  can, 
or  must  have  loved. 

The  past  perfect  is  formed  by  joining  the  past  po 
tential  of  have  to  the  past  participle ;  as,  might,  could, 
would,  or  should  have  loved. 


SUBJUNCTIVE   MODE. 

The  subjunctive  mode  is  the  same  in  form  as  the  indica 
live  or  potential,  with  if,  unless,  though,  &c.,  prefixed ;  as, 
if  I  love    if  I  can  love. 


IMPERATIVE   MODE. 


The  imperative  has  but  one  tense,  —  the  present,  —  which 
Is  the  simple  form  of  the  verb,  generally  used  without  the 
subject  expressed ;  as,  love. 


IN    GRAMMAR.  65 

INFINITIVE   MODE. 

The  infinitive  mode  has  two  tenses,  —  a  present  and  a 
verfect,  The  present  is  the  first  form  of  the  verb  joined  to 
k> ;  as,  to  love, 

The  perfect  is  formed  by  joining  the  present  infinitive  of 
have  to  tin  past  participle  of  the  verb;  as,  to  have  loved. 

PARTICIPLES. 

The  present  participle  is  formed  by  adding  ing  to  the  first 
form  of  the  verb ;  *  as,  loving. 

The  past  participle  is  formed,  for  regular  verbs,  by  adding 
id  to  the  simple  verb ;  *  as,  loved. 

The  perfect  participle  is  formed  by  joining  the  present 
participle  of  have  to  the  past  participle ;  as,  having  loved. 

EMPHATIC   FORM. 

The  emphatic  form  is  used  to  express  emphasis ;  it  belongs 
to  the  active  voice  of  the  indicative  and  imperative  modes. 
It  is  formed  by  joining  the  auxiliary  do  to  the  first  form  of 
the  verb,  for  the  present  tense,  and  did  to  the  same,  for  the 
past  tense  ;  as,  do  love,  do  thou  love,  did  love. 

PROGRESSIVE    FORM. 

The  progressive  form  represents  an  unfinished  act ;  it  is 
the  common  form  of  the  copula,  to  he,  added  to  the  present 
participle ;  as,  am  loving,  have  teen  loving,  &c. 

PASSIVE   FORM. 

The  passive  form  denotes  the  reception  of  an  act ;  it  is 
the  common  form  of  the  copula,  to  be,  joined  to  the  passive 
participle,  (same  in  form  as  the  past  participle ;)  as,  is  loved, 
has  been  loved,  &c. 

*  When  the  simple  verh  ends  in  i  foe  e  should  be  dropped,  according  to 
Rule  II.  p  29. 


66  FIRST  LESSONS 

CONJUGATION. 

The  conjugation  of  a  verb  is  the  regular  arrange- 
ment of  its  several  modes,  tenses,  voices,  numbers, 
and  persons. 

The  following  is  the  conjugation  of  the  verb  TO  BE :  ^» 

INDICATIVE     MODE. 
ABSOLUTE  TENSES. 


Present  Tense 

Singular. 

Plural. 

1.  I  am. 

We  are. 

2.  Thou  art.* 

You  are.f 

3.  He  is. 

They  are. 

Past  Tense. 

Singular. 

Plural. 

1.  I  was. 

We  were. 

2.  Thou  wast. 

Tou  were. 

3.  He  was. 

They  were. 

Future  Tense. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  shall  or  will  be.  We  shall  or  will  be. 

2.  Thou  shalt  or  wilt  be.  You  shall  or  will  be. 

3.  He  shall  or  will  be.  They  shall  or  will  be 

KELATIVE  TENSES. 

Present  Perfect. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  have  been.  We  have  been. 

2.  Thou  hast  been.  You  have  been. 

3.  He  has  been.  They  have  been. 

*  Thou  is  used  in  the  solemn  or  poetical  style,  but  you  is  used  in  tin 
lingular  in  the  common  style ;  as,  I  am,  you  are,  he  is. 
t  Ye  is  also  used  in  the  plural ;  thus,  Ye  or  you  are. 


IN   GRAMMAR.  *J7 

Past  Perfect. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  had  been.  We  had  been. 

2.  Thou  hadst  been.  You  had  been. 

3.  He  had  been.  They  had  been 

Future  Perfect. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  shall  have  been.  We  shall  have  been 

2.  Thou  wilt  have  been.  You  will  have  been. 

3.  He  will  have  been.  They  will  have  beea 

i 

POTENTIAL    MODE. 
ABSOLUTE  TENSES. 

Present  Tense. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  may  be.  We  may  be. 

2.  Thou  mayst  be.  You  may  be. 

3.  He  may  be.  They  may  be. 

Past  Tense. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  might  be.  We  might  be. 

2.  Thou  mightst  be.  You  might  be. 

3.  He  might  be.  They  might  be. 

EELATIVE  TENSES. 

Present  Perfect. 

Singular.  Plural 

1.  I  may  have  been.  We  may  have  been. 

2.  Thou  mayst  have  been.  You  may  have  been. 
8.  He  may  have  been.  They  may  have  been. 

Past  Perfect 

Singular.  .  Plural. 

1.  I  might  have  been.  We  might  have  been. 

2.  Thou  mightst  have  been.  You  might  have  been. 

3.  He  might  have  been.  They  might  have  bean* 


68  FIRST   LESSONS 

SUBJUNCTIVE     MODE. 
ABSOLUTE  TENSES. 

Present  Tense- 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  If  I  am.  If  we  are. 

2.  If  thou  art.  If  you  are. 

3.  If  he  is.  If  they  are. 

Past  Tense. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  If  I  was.  If  we  were. 

2.  If  thou  wast.  If  you  were. 

3.  If  he  was.  If  they  were. 

Future  Tense. 

Singular.  Plwal. 

1.  If  I  shall  or  will  be.  If  we  shall  or  will  be. 

2.  If  thou  shalt  or  wilt  be.  If  you  shall  or  will  be. 

3.  If  he  shall  or  will  be.  If  they  shall  or  will  ba 

RELATIVE  TENSES 
Present  Perfect. 

Singular.  Plural. 

•  1.  If  I  have  been.  If  we  have  been. 

2.  If  thou  hast  been.  If  you  have  been. 

3.  If  he  has  been.  If  they  have  been. 

■%  Past  Perfect. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  If  I  had  been.  If  we  had  been, 

2.  If  thou  hadst  been.  If  you  had  been. 
&  If  he  had  been.  If  they  had  been, 

Future  Perfect. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  If  I  shall  have  been.  If  we  shall  have  been. 

2.  If  thou  shalt  have  been.  If  you  shall  have  been. 
8.  If  he  shall  have  been  If  they  shall  have  been. 


IN   GRAMMAR. 


69 


Besides  the  forms  already  given,  the  subjunctive  hai 
another  for  the  present  and  past. 


1. 

2. 

3. 

Present  Tense. 

Singular. 
If  I  be. 
If  thou  be. 
If  he  be. 

Plural. 
If  we  be. 
If  you  be. 
If  they  be. 

1. 

2. 
3. 

Past 

Singula). 
If  I  were. 
If  thou  wert* 
If  he  were. 

Tense. 

Plural. 
If  we  were. 
If  you  were. 
If  they  were. 

IMPERATIVE   MODE. 

Present  Tense. 

Singular. 

Plural. 

Be,  or  Be  thou. 


Be  ye  or  you. 


INFINITIVE   MODE. 

Present  Tense,  To  be. 


Present  Perfect, 


To  have  been. 


PARTICIPLES. 

Present,  Being. 

Past,  Been. 

Perfect,  Having  been. 

Synopsis  is  a  short  view  of  a  verb,  showing  its  form& 
through  the  modes  and  tenses  in  a  single  number  and  per- 
son. The  following  is  a  synopsis,  1st  person  singular  oi 
HAVE:  — 


INDICATIVE   MODE. 

ABSOLUTE  TENSES. 
I  have,  I  nad.  I  shall  have. 


70  FIRST   LES30NS 

RELATIVE  TENSES. 
I  have  had.  I  had  had.  I  shall  have  had. 

Let  the  learner  write  out  the  second  and  third  persons  in 
the  same  manner,  and  complete  the  synopsis  in  all  the 
modes. 


The  regular  verb  LOVE  is  thus  conjugated  :  — 

INDICATIVE    MODE. 

Note.  The  four  forms  —  the  common,  emphatic,  progressive, 
and  passive  —  are  arranged  together.  The  pronouns  are  placed  at 
the  head  of  the  column,  and  should  be  taken  in  connection  with 
the  forms  below  them.  When  read  downwards,  the  several  form9 
in  each  person  will  be  given  ;  when  read  across  the  page,  the  seve 
ral  persons  in  each  form  will  be  given. 

Present  Tense. 


1....  Singular. 

2....  Singular. 

3....  Singular 

I 

Thou 

He,  She,  It 

(  Com. 

love, 

lovest, 

loves, 

ACT. 

<JEmp. 

do  love, 

dost  love, 

does  love, 

1  Prog. 

am  loving, 

art  loving, 

is  loving, 

PAs. 

am  loved, 

art  loved, 

is  loved. 

l....Plurnl. 

2.. ..Plural. 

3.  .Plural 

We 

Ye  or  You 

They 

(Com. 

love, 

love, 

love, 

ACT. 

<  Emp. 

do  love, 

do  love, 

do  love, 

1  Prog. 

are  loving, 

are  loving, 

are  loving, 

PAS. 

.  are  loved, 

are  loved. 

are  loved. 

Past  Tense. 

1  •  •  Singular. 

2.-  •  Singular. 

3.-  'Singular 

I 

Thou 

He,  She,  It 

C  Com. 

loved, 

lovedst, 

loved, 

ACT. 

<  Emp. 

did  love, 

didst  love, 

did  love, 

1  Prog. 

was  loving, 

wast  loving, 

was  loving, 

PAS. 

was  loved, 

wast  loved, 

was  loved. 

IN   GRAMMAR. 

7] 

1  .  .Plural. 

2....Plural. 

8..  .Ftvral. 

We 

Ye  or  You 

Thky 

(Com. 

loved, 

loved, 

loved, 

ACT. 

<  Emp. 

did  love, 

did  love, 

did  love, 

(Prog. 

were  loving, 

were  loving, 

were  loving, 

PAS. 

were  loved, 

•wprp.  InvprL 

were  loved. 

Future  Tense. 

1....  Singular. 

2....  Singular. 

3....  Singular 

I 

Thou 

He,  She,  It   < 

f  Com. 

shall  *  love, 

shalt  love, 

shall  love, 

{  Prog. 

shall  be  loving, 

shalt  be  loving, 

shall  be  loving, 

PAS. 

,  shall  be  loved, 

shalt  be  loved, 

shall  be  loved. 

l....Plural.  2....Plural.  3..  ..Plural. 

We  Ye  or  You  They 

(  Com.    shall  love,  shall  love,  shall  love, 

\  Prog,  shall  be  loving,  shall  be  loving,    shall  be  loving, 
pas shall  be  loved,    shall  be  loved,     shall  be  loved. 

Present  Perfect. 

1....  Singular.  2....  Singular.  3....  Singular. 

I  Thou  He,  She,  It 

("  Com.    have  loved,  hast  loved,  has  loved, 

ACT.  -< 

"  (  Prog,  have  been  loving,  hast  been  loving,  has  been  loving, 
pas.  ..."..  have  been  loved,  hast  been  loved,    has  been  loved. 

l....Plural. 
We 

ACT    J  ^0m"     kaVe  l°ved, 

i  Prog,  have  been  loving,  have  been  loving,  have  been  loving, 
pas have  been  loved,  have  been  loved,  have  been  loved. 

Past  Perfect. 

1....  Singular.  2....  Singular.  3.... Singular. 

I  Thou  He,  She,  It 

<  Com.    had  loved,  hadst  loved,  had  loved, 

ACT    -j  ' 

I  Prog,  had  been  loving,  hadst  been  loving,  had  been  loving,. 
pas had  been  loved,  hadst  been  loved,    had  been  loved. 


2....Plural. 

3.... Plural. 

Ye  or  You 

They 

have  loved, 

have  loved, 

*  The  pupil  should  be  accustomed 
(See  auxilariee,  shall  and  will.) 


>  use  either  auxiliary,  shall  or  will 


72  FIRST   LESSONS 


l....Plural  2....Plural.  B....Plural. 

We  Ye  or  You  They 

act  I  ^°m'  had  loved>  tad  loved>  had  loved, 

{  Prog,  had  been  loving,  had  been  loving,  had  been  loving, 
pas had  been  loved,  had  been  loved,  had  been  loved. 

Future  Perfect 

1....  Singular,  2....  Singular. 

I  Thou 

j  Com.    shall  have  loved,  shalt  have  loved, 

"  (  Prog,  shall  have  been  loving,  shalt  have  been  loving, 

pas shall  have  been  loved,  shalt  have  been  loved, 

3....  Singular. 
He,  She,  It 
f  Com.     shall  have  loved, 
i  Prog,    shall  have  been  loving, 
pas shall  have  been  loved. 


ACT. 


l....Plural.  2....Plural. 

We  Ye  or  You. 

(Com.    shall  have  loved,  shall  have  loved, 

'  (  Prog,  shall  have  been  loving,      shall  have  been  loving 

pas shall  have  been  loved,       shall  have  been  loved. 

3.. ..Plural. 
They 
("  Com.    shall  have  ioved, 
(  Prog,  shall  have  been  loving, 
pas.  .....  shall  have  been  loved. 

POTENTIAL   MODE. 

Present  Tense. 

1.... Singular.  2.. ..Singular.        3...  .Singular. 

I  Thou  He,  She,  It 

(  Com.    may  *  love,  mayst  love,  may  love, 

"  \  Prog,  may  be  loving,  mayst  be  loving,  may  be  loving 

pas may  be  loved,  mayst  be  loved,  may  be  loved. 

*  Let  the  pupil  use  also  the  auxiliaries  can  and  must,  in  the  present  and 
present  perfect  tenses  ;  and  could.,  would,  and  should,  in  the  past  and  pas* 
perfect  tenses. 


Ifl*rf> 


V^       OF  TBK 

[UNIVERSIT 


> 


IN   GRAMMAR^ 


-! 


Com. 
Prog. 


l....Plural. 
We 
may  love, 

may  be  loving, 
may  be  loved, 


2....  Plural. 
Ye  or  You 

may  love, 
may  be  loving, 
may  be  loved, 


73 


They 
may  love, 
may  be  loving, 
may  be  loved. 


Past  Tense. 


1....  Singular. 


ACT.  \°m'     miShtlove> 
*  (  Prog,  might  be  loving, 

pas might  be  loved, 


2 . . . .  Singular.  3. . . .  Singular. 

Thou  He,  She,  It 

mightst  love,  might  love, 

mightst  be  loving,  might  be  loving, 
mightst  be  loved,   might  be  loved. 


(  Com. 


1....  Plural. 
We 
might  love, 


2....  Plural. 
Ye  or  You 
might  love, 


3....Plural. 
They 
might  love, 
might  be  loving, 
mia;ht  be  loved. 


\Prog.  might  be  loving,    might  be  loving, 
pas might  be  loved,    might  be  loved, 

Present  Perfect  Tense. 

1. . . .  Singular.  2. . . .  Singular. 

I  Thou 

f  Com.    may  have  loved,  mayst  have  loved, 

[  Prog,  may  have  been  loving,    mayst  have  been  loving, 
.....  may  have  been  loved,    mayst  have  been  loved. 
3....  Singular. 
He,  She,  It 
(  Com.    may  have  loved, 
"  \  Prog,  may  have  been  loving, 
PAS may  have  been  loved. 


ACT. 
PAS. 


ACT. 
PAS. 


■i 


l....Plural. 
We 
(Pk%.    may  have  loved, - 
Prog    may  have  been  loving, 
.  .     may  have  been  loved, 

3..  ..Plural. 
They 
C  Com.    may  have  loved, 
'  \  Prog,  may  have  been  loving, 
pas may  have  been  loved. 

7 


2....Plural. 
Ye  or  You 
may  have  loved, 
may  have  been  loving, 
may  have  been  loved. 


i! 


T4  FIRST  LESSONS 

Past  Perfect  Tense. 

1....  Singular.  2....  Singular. 

I  Thou 

(  C<«».    might  have  loved,  mightst  have  loved, 

"  \  Prog,  might  have  teen  loving,    mightst  have  been  loving, 

pas. might  have  been  loved,     mightst  have  been  loved. 

3....  Singular. 
He,  She,  It 
(  Gm.    might  have  loved, 
"  ^  Prog,  might  have  been  loving, 

pas might  have  been  loved. 

1....  Plural.  2.. ..Plural. 

We  Ye  or  You 

Com.    might  have  loved,  might  ha?e  loved, 

^  Prog,  might  have  been  loving,     might  have  been  loving, 

pas might  have  been  loved,      might  have  been  loved. 

3....  Plural, 
They 
(  Com.    might  have  loved, 
"  \  Prog,  might  have  been  loving, 
pas might  have  been  loved. 

SUBJUNCTIVE   MODE. 

The  subjunctive  mode  is  the  same  as  the  indicative  o* 
potential,  with  if  prefixed. 

IMPERATIVE  MODE. 

Singular.  Plural. 

(  Com.    Love,  or  Love  thou.  Love,  or  Love  ye  or  you. 

act.  <  Emp.   Do  thou  Love.  Do  ye  or  you  love, 

^  Prog.  Be  thou  loving.  Be  ye  or  you  loving. 

pas Be  thou  loved.  Be  ye  or  yxm  lovoo. 

INFINITIVE    MODE. 

Present  Tense. 
<  Com..    To  love. 

ACT.  < 

'  \  Prog.  To  be  loving. 
pas To  be  loved. 


Pres    ■} 


IN   GRAMMAR.  T5 

Perfect  Tense. 

<"  Com.    To  have  loved. 
(  Prog.  To  have  been  laving. 
pas To  have  been  loved. 

PARTICIPLES. 

(  Loving,  (common  form.) 
I  Being  loving,  (progressiva  form.) 
pas.  .  Being  loved,  or  loved. 
Past, Loved,  (used  only  in  combination.) 

,    C  (  Having  loved,  (common  form.) 

Perf.  <  I  Having  been  loving,  (progressive form.) 

(  pas.  .  Having  been  loved. 
Note.     Some  few  intransitive  verbs  take  the  passive  form  ;  a*> 
"  I  am  come  ;  "    "  The  sun  is  risen ;  "  "  He  is  fallen.'''' 

What  does  tense  denote  ?  How  many  divisions  of  tense  are 
there  ?  How  many  tenses  has  each  division  V  What  are  they  ? 
How  many  tenses  are  there  in  all  ?  What  does  the  present  tense 
denote  ?  What  does  the  present  perfect  tense  denote  ?  What  does 
the  past  tense  denote  ?  What  does  the  past  perfect  tense  denote  ? 
What  does  the  future  tense  denote  ?  What  does  the  future  perfect 
tense  denote  ?  How  many  forms  have  verbs  in  the  active  voice  ? 
How  many  in  the  passive  ?  Mention  the  forms.  "What  is  conjuga 
tion  ?  Conjugate  to  be.  What  is  a  synopsis  ?  (jrive  a  synopsis 
of  to  have.  Give  also  a  synopsis  of  to  be.  Conjugate  to  love. 
Give  a  synopsis  of  it. 


LESSON   XXII. 

ADVERBS. 

An  adverb  is  a  word  used  to  modify  the  meaning 
of  a  verb,  adjective,  participle,  or  other  adverb 


76     •  FIRST   LESSONS 

Adverbs  may  be  divided  into  four  genera] 
classes,  —  adverbs  of  place,  of  time,  of  cause,  of 
manner. 

Adverbs  of  place  answer  the  questions,  Where  f 
Whither  ?  Whence  ?  as,  here,  there,  above,  yonder, 
below,  somewhere,  bach,  upwards,  downwards r  &c. 

Adverbs  of  time  answer  the  questions,  When  ? 
How  long  t  Hoiv  often?  as,  then,  yesterday,  always, 
ever,  continually,  often,  frequently,  &c. 

Adverbs  of  cause  answer  the  questions,  Why? 
Wherefore  ?  as,  why,  wherefore,  therefore,  then. 

Note.  Casual  relations  are  commonly  expressed  by  phrases  and 
clauses. 

Adverbs  of  manner  answer  the  question,  How  ? 
as,  elegantly,  faithfully,  fairly,  &c.  They  are  gen- 
erally derived  from  adjectives  denoting  quality. 

Under  this  head  may  be  classed  those  which  answer  the  question, 
How  1  in  respect  to  quantity  or  quality ;  as,  How  much  ?  How 
good  ?  &c. ;  as,  too,  very,  greatly,  chiefly,  perfectly,  mainly,  wholly, 
totally,  quite,  exceedingly. 

Modal  adverbs  which  show  the  manner  of  the  assertion  (see  Modes, 
Lesson  XX.)  belong  to  this  class  also.  The  following  are  the  prin 
cipal  modal  adverbs:  —  yes,  yea,  verily,  truly,  surely,  undoubtedly, 
doubtless,  forsooth,  certainly;  no,  nay,  not ;  possibly,  probably, per- 
haps, peradventure,  perchance. 

All  phrases  or  clauses  which  denote  place,  time, 
cause,  or  manner,  are  of  the  nature  of  adverbs. 

COMPARISON   OF  ADVERBS. 

Many  adverbs,  like  adjectives,  admit  of  com 
parison ;  as,  soon,  sooner,  soonest ;  bravely,  more 
bravely,  most  bravely. 


IN   GRAMMAR. 


77 


Note. 
XXIV. 


For  interrogative  and  conjunctive  adverbs,  see  Lesson 


What  is  an  adverb  ?  Into  how  many  classes  are  adverbs  divided  ? 
What  questions  do  adverbs  of  place  answer  ?  Adverbs  of  time  ? 
Adverbs  of  cause  ?  Adverbs  of  manner  ?  What  forms  are  of  the 
nature  of  adverbs  ? 


LESSON    XXIII. 


PREPOSITIONS. 

Note.    For  the  construction  and  use  of  the  prepositions,  see 
Lessons  XXXVI  and  XXXVII. 

A  preposition  is  a  word  used  to  show  the  relation 
between  a  noun  or  pronoun  and  some  preceding 
word  ;  as,  upon,  on,  ivith. 

The  following  is  a  list  of  the  principal  prepo- 
sitions in  use  :  —  , 


Aboard, 

before, 

for, 

throughout 

about, 

behind, 

from, 

till, 

above, 

below, 

in,  into, 

to, 

according  to, 

beneath, 

notwithstanding, 

touching, 

across, 

beside  or 

of, 

toward  or 

after, 

besides, 

off, 

towards, 

against, 

between, 

on, 

under, 

along, 

betwixt, 

out  of, 

underneatu, 

amid  or 

beyond, 

over, 

until, 

amidst, 

by, 

past, 

unto, 

among  or 

concerning, 

regarding, 

up, 

amongst, 

down, 

respecting, 

upon, 

around, 

during, 

round, 

with, 

at. 

except, 

since, 

within, 

athwart, 

excepting, 

7* 

through, 

without. 

78  FIRST   LESSONS 

INTERJECTIONS. 

An  interjection  is  a  word  used  to  express  some 
emotion  of  the  mind ;  as,  oh  !  alas  ! 

Interjections  are  to  be  found  chiefly  in  sentences  expressive  of 
joy,  sorrow,  or  reverence. 

What  is  a  preposition  ?    Repeat  the  list.     What  is  an  interjes 
tion? 


LESSON    XXIV. 
INTERROGATIVES    AND    CONNECTIVES. 

Interrogatives  are  words  used  in  asking  ques- 
tions. 

There  are  three  kinds  of  interrogatives, — pro- 
nouns, adjectives,  and  adverbs. 

Interrogative  pronouns  are  used  to  inquire  for 
some  person  or  thing.  They  are  who,  which,  and 
what. 

Who  is  used  to  inquire  for  persons ;  what,  as  a 
pronoun,  inquires  for  things;  ivhich  refers  to  one 
tf  several  persons  or  things;  as,  "  Who  wrote.? 
James."  "  What  do  you  see  ?  A  tree."  "  Which 
shall  I  take  ?   The  largest  one." 

Interrogative  adjectives  are  used  to  inquire  for' 
some  description  of  a  person  or  thing.  They  are 
which,  what,  joined  to  the  noun  to  be  described ; 
how  many,  used  to  inquire  for  number ;  as,  "  What 


IN   GRAMMAR.  79     s 

book  have  you  ?  A  blank  book."  "  Which  path 
shall  we  follow  ?  The  right-hand  path."  "  How 
many  lessons  has  he  learned  ?     Four  lessons." 

Interrogative  adverbs  inquire  for  some  circum- 
stance of  place,  time,  cause,  or  manner ;  as, 
"  Where,  when,  why,  how,  did  he  go?" 

Note.    For  a  list  of  interrogative  adverbs  see  Lesson  XXXIX. 

Connectives  are  words  used  to  unite  the  elements 
of  a  sentence ;  as,  "  When  a  wise  man  is  derided 
by  a  foolish,  he  will  not  be  indignant." 

Connectives  are  divided  into  two  classes,  —  coor- 
dinate and  subordinate. 

Coordinate  connectives  are  always  conjunctions. 
They  are  used  to  unite  either  coordinate  clauses  or 
coordinate  parts  of  a  clause ;  as,  "  Life  is  short 
and  art  is  long ; "  "  Vice  and  misery  are  insep- 
arable." 

Coordinate  conjunctions  are  of  three  kinds, — 
copulative,  adversative,  and  alternative. 

A  subordinate  connective  is  used  to  join  a  sub- 
ordinate clause  to  some  preceding  word  or  clause ; 
as,  "  I  knew  that  he  was  deceitful." 

Subordinate  connectives  are  conjunctions,  relar 
tive  pronouns,  and  conjunctive  adverbs. 

Subordinate  connectives  are  used  to  connect  the 
three  kinds  of  clauses,  —  substantive,  adjective,  and 
adverbial. 

Substantive  clauses  are  connected  by  that  and 
the  various  interrogatives.    (See  Lesson  XXXIX.) 


80  FIRST   LESSONS 

Adverbial  clauses  are  connected  by  conjunctive 
adverbs. 

Adjective  clauses  are  connected  by  relative  pro* 
nouns. 

What  are  interrogatives  ?  How  many  classes  of  interrogatives 
are  there  ?  For  what  do  interrogative  pronouns  inquire  ?  Inter- 
rogative adjectives?  Interrogative  adverbs?  What  are  connec- 
tives ?  How  are  they  divided  ?  What  are  coordinate  connectives, 
and  tow  are  they  used  ?  How  many  kinds  are  there  ?  How  are 
subordinate  connectives  used?  What  are  subordinate  connec- 
tives ?  What  kinds  of  clauses  do  subordinate  connectives  join  ? 
What  connectives  join  substantive  clauses?  What  adverbial? 
What  adjective  ? 


Miscellaneous  Questions  on  the  preceding  Lessons. 
How  many  classes  of  words  are  there  when  classed  according  to 
their  formation?  How  many  when  classed  according  to  their 
meaning  and  use?  What  is  the  difference  between  a  primitive 
and  a  derivative  word?  A  derivative  and  a  compound  word? 
Give  five  of  each  kind.  What  is  the  difference  between  a  noun 
and  a  pronoun  ?  Could  we  dispense  with  the  pronoun  ?  Why  ? 
What  is  the  difference  between  an  adjective  and  a  noun  ?  How 
may  an  adjective  be  known  ?^  What  is  the  difference  betweer  a 
common  and  a  proper  noun  ?  How  does  a  collective  noun  differ 
from  other  common  nouns  ?  Give  four  collective  nouns.  Give 
the  plural  of  phenomenon.  Give  the  possessive  case  of  conscience. 
Achilles.  Write  the  possessive  plural  of  mouth,  duty,  winter.  What 
is  the  difference  between  a  limiting  and  a  qualifying  adjective  ? 
Illustiate  it.  In  comparing  two  objects,  which  degree  of  compari- 
son should  we  use?  What  is  the  difference  between  a  cardinal 
and  an  ordinal  adjective  ?  Compare  near.  What  is  the  difference 
between  a  transitive  and  an  intransitive  verb  ?  What  is  the  differ 
ence  between  a  passive  and  an  active  verb  ?  What  is  the  differ 
ence  between  the  indicative  and  potential  modes  ?  The  present 
tense  and  the  present  perfect  ?  ■  The  passive  and  past  participles  ? 
Write  upon  your  slates  the  verb  sing,  in  the  second  person,  singular 
number,  past  perfect  tense,  potential  mode. 


FART   li. 


FORMATION    OF    SENTENCES* 

Part  II.  embraces  syntax  and  prosody.  Th* 
former  treats  of  the  formation  of  sentences  in 
general;  the  latter  of  the  formation  of  sentences 
into  verse. 

LESSON    XXV 

DEFINITIONS. 

A  sentence  is  a  thought  expressed  in  words ;  as, 
"  Life  is  short." 

A  sentence  may  contain  one  proposition  or  more. 

A  proposition  is  the  combination  of  a  subject  and 
a  predicate. 

The  component  parts  of  a  sentence  are  called  its 
elements. 

The  elements  of  a  sentence  may  be  either  words, 
phrases,  or  clauses. 

Those  elements  which  are  essential  to  the  for 

mation  of  a  sentence,  are  called  principal  elements , 
F 


32  FIRST   LESSONS 

those  which  are  not  thus  essential,  are  called  sulk 
ordinate  elements. 

A  simple  sentence  contains  but  one  proposition ; 
as,  "  The  winds  blow." 

A  complex  sentence  contains  two  or  more  dissim 
ilar  propositions ;  as,  "  When  the  winds  blow,  the 
trees  bend." 

A  compound  sentence  contains  two  or  more  sim- 
ilar propositions  ;  as,  "  The  winds  blow  and  the 
trees  bend." 

In  the  sentence,  "  When  the  winds  blow,  the  trees  bend,"  the 
first  proposition  is  wholly  dependent  upon  the  other,  hence  they  are 
dissimilar ;  in  the  next  example,  u  The  winds  blow  and  the  tree* 
bend,"  the  two  propositions  are  independent  of  each  other,  hence 
they  are  similar. 

What  does  Part  II.  embrace  ?  What  is  a  sentence  ?  How  many 
propositions  may  a  sentence  contain  ?  What  is  a  proposition  ? 
What  is  the  subject  of  a  proposition  ?  What  is  the  predicate  of  a 
proposition  ?  What  is  a  simple  sentence  V  What  is  a  complex 
sentence  ?     What  is  a  compound  sentence  ? 


LESSON    XXVI. 

OBJECTS,   OR  THINGS,   AND   THEIR  ATTRIBUTES. 

All  persons,  animals,  places,  and  things,  whether 
material  or  immaterial,  are  called  objects. 

Note.  It  is  important  that  the  learner  should  know  that  the 
names  of  all  the  objects  which  he  can  see,  feel,  taste,  smell,  hear, 
or  think  of,  are  nouns.     He  should  be  accustomed  to  name  all  the 


IN   GRAMMAR.  83 

objects  he  has  seen  during  a  walk,  a  ride,  a  sail,  &c.    Let  him 
write  upon  the  slate  the  following 

EXERCISE. 

Write  the  names  of  all  the  objects  in  this  room ;  —  of 
all  the  objects  which  you  would  probably  see  in  a  walk  in 
spring,  —  in  summer,  —  in  autumn,  — -  in  winter ;  —  in  a  sail 
down  a  river ;  —  in  a  ride  through  a  village,*  —  a  city ,  —  in 
a  visit  to  a  museum,  —  a  ship,  —  a  store,  —  a  factory. 

Model.  In  this  room, — fireplace,  bricks,  iron,  boards, 
paper,  glass,  plaster,  ceiling,  stove,  funnel,  desks,  books,  boys, 
girls,  hats,  bonnets,  &c.  &c.  &c. 

Tell  what  ivords  are  names  of  objects  in  the  following  sen- 
tences :  — 

"  The  soil  of  Scotland  produces  wheat,  rye,  barley,  oats, 
hemp,  flax,  hay,  and  pasture.  The  country  contains  few 
or  no  animals  not  to  be  found  among  neighboring  nations 
Black  cattle  abound,  especially  upon  the  Highlands." 

All  objects  possess  certain  properties,  called  attri- 
butes. 

Thus,  we  say,  "  The  rose  is  beautiful,  sweet,  fragrant,  red,  white." 
Beautiful,  sweet,  fragrant,  red,  and  white,  are  attributes  of  the 
*-ose. 

Attributes  are  of  three  kinds :  — 

(1.)  Those  which  denote  the  class  of  objects; 
as,  beast,  bird,  tree;  — 

(2.)  Those  which  denote  the  qualities  of  objects ; 
as,  good)  old,  sweet ;  — 

(3.)  Those  which  denote  the  actions  of  objects  \ 
as,  run,  crawl,  fly. 

*  Each  pupil  should  he  encouraged  to  write  the  names  of  as  many  object* 
as  possible,  and  such  exercises  should  he  multiplied  at  the  discretion  of  the 
teacher. 


84  FIRST  LESSONS 

EXERCISE.* 

Give  the  class  to  which  the  following  objects  may 
belong :  — 

Oak,  water,  cherries,  iron,,  swords,  dogs,  scholars,  flutes, 
George,  Hartford,  Thames,  France,  priest,  sparrow. 

Model.     Oak,  —  a  tree,  a  plant,  a  substance. 

Give  some  of  the  qualities  of  the  following  objects:  — 

Lily,  horse,  gold,  man,  peach,  tree,  house,  garden,  water, 
sky,  clouds,  sun,  apples,  grapes,  fishes,  truth,  education. 

Model.    Lily,  —  white,  delicate,  fragrant,  sweet. 

Write  appropriate  actions  to  the  following  objects:  — 

Birds,  serpents,  flies,  sun,  stars,  insects,  rain,  children, 
armies,  wasps,  weeds,  acorns,  historians,  fishes,  worms. 

Model.  Birds,  — fig,  sing,  run,  hop,  eat,  sleep,  chirp, 
lag,  set,  hatch,  brdod,  feed,  protect. 

Write  appropriate  objects  to  the  following  miscellaneous 
attributes :  — 

Short,  faithful,  watchful,  writes,  sings,  animal,  king,  wise, 
dubious,  dances,  opening,  melts,  lives,  tree,  vegetable,  omi- 
nous, dutiful,  pleasing,  painful,  punctilious,  swims,  crawl, 
degrading. 

Model.  Short,  —  life,  cane,  face,  shoes,  hair,  cloak, 
fingers,  nails,  journey,  time. 

What  does  the  word  object  embrace  ?  Mention  six  objects  ? 
What  do  all  objects  possess?  How  many  kinds  of  attribute*  aro 
there  ?     Give  them  in  order. 

*  The  pupil  should  be  considered  as  having  performed  his  task  if  L« 
tdves  but  one  attribute  to  each  objeet  j  yet  he  should  be  encouraged  fcr  givti 
Kfl  many  tc  each  as  possible. 


IN   GRAMMAR.  85 

LESSON    XXVII. 
ASSUMED   AND   PREDICATED   ATTRIBUTES. 

An  attribute  may  be  joined  to  an  object  in  two 
ways :  — 

(1.)  It  may  be  assumed  of  it;  as,  blue  sky, 
rough  sea,  poisonous  reptiles ;  — 

(  2.)  It  may  be  predicated  of  it ;  as,  "  The  sky 
is  blue;"  "The  sea  is  rough;"  "Reptiles  are 
poisonous" 

EXERCISE. 

Assume  the  following  qualities  of  gold,* —  porous,  rough, 
yellow,  precious,  heavy ;  —  of  water,  —  pure,  clear,  turbid, 
salt,  fresh ;  —  of  a  horse,  noble,  spirited,  active,  brave, 
frantic,  wild,  white,  lame,  young,  old,  sick,  dead,  heavy, 
nimble. 

Model.  Porous  gold,  rough  gold,  yellow  gold,  precious 
gold,  heavy  gold. 

Predicate  the  same  qualities. 

Model.  Gold.is^orows.  Gold  is  rough.  Gold  is  yellow. 
Gold  is  precious.    Gold  is  heavy. 

Assume  and  then  predicate  the  following  qualities  of 
appropriate  objects :  — 

Wise,  great,  amiable,  fruitful,  happy,  idle,  lazy,  dull,  fret- 
ful, pleasant,  joyful,  green,  old,  white,  zealous,  sagacious. 

Assume  and  then  predicate  an  appropriate  action  of  each 
of  the  following :  — 

Bees,  whales,  winds,  waves,  merchants,  kings,  trees, 
Samuel,  Susan,  scholars,  water,  rain,  hens,  minstrels, 
Feter,  George. 

Model.     Buzzing  bees.    Bees  are  buzzing,  or  buzz. 

8 


86  FIRST   LESSONS 

Assume  and  then  predicate  the  class  of  the  following:— > 

Wasps,  adder,  thrush,  Susan,  piony,  ash,  birch,  beer,  coat, 
intemperance,  the  bible,  the  earth. 

Model.     The  wasp,  an  insect.*     The  wasp  is  an  insect. 

Show  which  of  the  following  expressions  contain  predicated, 
and  which  assumed  attributes :  — 

Crawling  serpents.  The  workmen  are  idle.  John  the 
carpenter.  A  white  horse.  The  sun  is  setting.  Ice  melts. 
The  moon  shines.  An  old  story.  Wisdom  is  profitable. 
The  jeweller  is  an  artizan.  Fading  flowers.  Snow  is  fall- 
ing. Sour  grapes.  Fire  burns.  Singing  birds.  Serpents 
hissing.     Trees  falling.     The  journey  is  long. 

Change  the  above  examples,  — predicate  the  assumed,  and 
assume  the  predicated  attributes. 

When  an  attribute  is  assumed  of  its  object,  it  is 
said  to  modify  or  limit  it. 

The  assumed  attribute  is  said  to  modify  or  limit  because  it 
restricts  a  general  term  to  a  particular  class.  Thus,  "horses" 
means  all  the  horses  in  the  world;  but  "while  horses"  applies  to 
those  of  one  color,  excluding  black,  red,  grey,  &c.  horses. 

When  an  attribute  is  predicated  of  an  object,  the 
two  united  form  a  proposition  or  simple  sentence ; 
as,  "  Snow  is  white  ;  "  "  Trees  grow ;  "  "  The 
earth  is  a  'planet" 

In  how  many  ways  may  an  attribute  be  used?  What  is  the 
meaning  of  assumed?  (Ans.  to  take  for  granted;  used  in  opposi 
tion  to  predicate.)  What  is  the  meaning  of  predicate?  (Ans.  to 
affirm,  declare,  or  say;  used  when  an  attribute  is  declared  to  belong 
to  its  object.  Assume  is  used  when  it  is  taken  for  granted  that  an 
attribute  belongs  to  its  object.  Compare  "Snow  is  white"  and 
"ichite  snow.")  When  is  an  attribute  said  to  modify  or  limit  its 
object  ?  When  does  an  attribute  form  with  its  object  a  proposition 
or  simple  sentence  ? 

*  In  assuming  the  class  or  species  of  an  object,  we  place  the  noun  denfifc 
ing  the  class  in  what  is  called  ajqiosition  with  the  object. 


IN   GRAMMAR.  87 

SIMPLE    SENTENCES. 
LESSON     XXVIII 

THE   PROPOSITION   OR   SIMPLE   SENTENCE. 

A  proposition  is  the  combination  of  a  subject 
and  predicate,  and  is  either  a  simple  sentence  or 
part  of  a  complex  or  compound  sentence. 

The  subject  of  a  proposition  is  that  of  which 
something  is  affirmed;  as,  " Birds  fly;"  "Horses 
run." 

The  predicate  of  a  proposition  is  that  which  is 
affirmed  of  the  subject ;  as,  "  Trees  grow  ;  "  "  The 
winds  are  boisterous" 

The  predicate  may  be  either  affirmed  or  denied  of  the  subject ; 
but  the  denial  of  any  thing  is  only  affirming  a  negative ;  as,  "  The 
fruit  is  not  ripe." 

The  subject  is  commonly  a  noun  or  pronoun ;  as, 
"  Greorge  writes  ;  "  "He  reads." 

,  Any  word,  syllable,  letter,  phrase,  or  proposition,  may  be  the 
subject,  when  used  as  a  noun;  as,  "Is  is  a  verb;"  "A  is  a 
vowel ; "  "To  read  is  profitable ; "  "  That  the  earth  revolves  on  it* 
axis,  is  clearly  proved." 

The  predicate  consists  of  two  parts,  —  the  verb 
or  copula,  and  the  attribute  ;  as,  "  Snow  is  white," 

Is  is  the  copula,  and  white,  the  attribute. 

The  copula  is  some  modification  (is,  are,  was, 
&c.)  of  the  verb  to  be.  Its  office  is,  to  assert  an 
attribute  of  the  thing  to  which  it  belongs. 

It  very  often  happens  that  the  attribute  and 
copula  are  united  in  one  word. 


88  FIRST  LESSONS 


EXAMPLES. 

Suhj'JCt. 

Predicate. 

Birds 

sing,  (are  singing. 

George 

comes. 

Winds 

blow. 

Stars 

shine. 

Note.  When  the  predicate  contains  the  copula  and  the  attri- 
bute in  one  word,  it  may  always  be  resolved  into  these  two  parts ; 
as,  "  Winds  blow,"  u  Winds  are  blowing." 

When  the  two  parts  of  the  predicate  are  united 
in  one  word,  that  word  is  always  a  verb ;  as,  "  John 
ivrites" 

Verbs  which  contain  the  copula  and  attribute  are  sometimes 
called  attributive  verbs,  because  the  attribute  is  included  in  them. 

The  verb  to  be  is  sometimes  an  attributive  verb  ;  it  then  denotes 
existence,  and  is  commonly  preceded  by  there,  and  followed  by  its 
subject;  as,  "  There  are  dolphins,"  "  Dolphins  exist." 

Besides  the  verb  to  be,  there  are  several  others  which  do  not 
complete  the  predicate,  but  take  after  them  some  word  denoting  a 
property  of  the  subject ;  as,  "  Beggars  are  becoming  numerous ;  " 
'llle  is  called  handsome."  These  verbs  are  sometimes  called  copu 
lative  verbs. 

Note.  The  pupil  has  already  seen  that  the  simplest  element  of 
the  language  is  a  letter.  Letters  unite  and  form  syllable*. 
Syllables,  either  alone  or  united,  form  primitive  words.  Primi- 
tive words,  by  the  addition  of  syllables  or  other  words,  become 
derivative  or  compound  words.  Words  unite  and  form  sex 
tences.  Sentences  unite  and  form  paragraphs.  Paragraphs 
unite  and  form  sections,  chapters,  and  entire  discourses  ort 
treatises.  The  reverse  of  this  process  of  combination  is  analy 
«is.  Each  of  these  combinations  can  be  resolved  into  the  next 
tower,  till  we  return  t^>  letters,  which  cannot  be  reduced. 

In  the  combination*,  me  pupil  has  seen  that  a  syllable  consists 
eithor  of  the  essential  part  alone,  (a  vowel,)  or  of  the  essential  part 
with  dependent  parts,  (consonants.)  So,  a  word  consists  either  of 
the  essential  part  alone,  (a  radical,)  or  of  the  essential  part  with 
dependent  parts,  (prefixes  and  suffixes.)  So,  again,  a  sentenco 
consists  either  of  the  essential  parts,  (the  subject  and  predicate, 


IN   GRAMMAR.  89 

or  of  the  essential  parts  with  dependent  parts,  (the  subordinate 
elements,  or  various  added  words.) 

The  essential  parts  of  a  sentence  are  the  subject 
and  predicate. 

Sentences  containing  only  the  two  essential  parts  are  analyzed 
according  to  the  following 

MODELS    FOR   ANALYSIS. 

Birds  fly. 

It  is  a  proposition,  because  it  contains  a  subject  and 

predicate. 
Birds  .  .  is  the  subject,  because  it  is  that  of  which  the  action  "  fly  " 

is  affirmed. 
Fly  ...  is  the  predicate,  because  it  is  the  action  affirmed  of 

"birds." 

Snow  is  white. 

It  is  a  proposition,  because  it  contains  a  subject  and 

predicate. 
Snow,  .is  the  subject,  because  it  is  that  of  which  the  qualify 

"white"  is  affirmed. 
Is  white,  is  the  predicate,  because  it  is  that  which  is  affirmed  of 

"snow."    "Is"  is  the  verb  or  copula,  and  "white"  is 

the  attribute." 

Gold  is  a  metal. 

It  is  a  proposition,  because  it  contains  a  subject  and 

predicate. 
Gold  ...  is  the  subject,  because  it  is  that  of  which  the  class  metal 

is  affirmed. 
Is  a  metal  is  the  predicate,  because  it  denotes  that  which  is  affirmed 

of  "  gold."    "  Is  "  is  the  verb,  and  "  metal,"  the  attribute. 

EXERCISE. 
Analyze    the   following   propositions    according    to    the 
models :  — 

Brutus  determined.    George  was  conscious.    Stars  shine. 
Writers  differ.     Trees  are  plants.     Virtue  ennobles.     Wis- 
dom  directs.     Caesar  conquered.    Kings  reign.    Richard 
8* 


90  FIRST  LESSONS 

was  bold.  Nero  was  cruel.  Socrates  was  a  philosopher. 
Night  comes.  Exercise  strengthens.  Serpents  crawl. 
Winds  blow.  Eagles  soar.  Historians  write.  Boys  play 
Geography  is  interesting. 

Predicate  action  of  the  following  subjects* :  — 

Horses,  water,   eagles,   whales,   quadrupeds,    Columbus,  i 
Washington,  father,  mother,  insects,  wind,  stars,  children, 
fire,  rain,  leaves,  grass,  time,  robbers,  armies,  moon,  George, 
kings,  wasps,  acorns. 

Model.     Horses  run.    Water  flows. 

Predicate  quality  of  the  following  nouns :  — 

Life,  peaches,  ice,  play,  arithmetic,  cloth,  chairs,  money, 
health,  intemperance,  history,  darkness,  morning,  wisdom, 
fruit,  clothing,  ink,  grass,  sky,  cherries,  silver,  fruit,  soldiers, 
labor,  wool,  Mary. 

Model.     Life  is  short.     Peaches  are  ripe. 

Predicate  the  class  of  the  following  subjects :  — 

Henry,  lemons,  ducks,  lilies,  city,  dogs,  trouts,  lions,  lead, 
sheep,  marbles,  knives,  air,  Peter,  Stephen,  David. 

Model.     Henry  is  a  scholar.     Lemons  are  fruit. 

Let  the  pupil  select  the  subjects  and  predicates  of  each 
sentence  from  a  paragraph  in  his  reading  lesson,  and  tell 
whether  action,  quality,  or  species,  is  predicated. 

Study  Lesson  XI.,  and  then  analyze  the  following  propo- 
sitions, and  tell  which  subjects  are  proper,  which  are  com- 
mon, and  which  are  collective  nouns :  — 

Alexander  conquered.  Zeno  was  a  philosopher.  Gray 
was  a  poet.  Orders  were  issued.  Snow  falls.  Temper- 
ance is  a  virtue.     Waves  dash.     Darkness  prevails.     The 

*The  pupil  should  write  these  and  similar  examples  upon  a  slate  01 
paper,  drawing  a  line  under  the  illustrative  word,  and  placing  a  period  ( .  ) 
at  the  end  of  each  proposition.  The  first  word  in  each  sentence  should 
commence  with  a  capital.  The  exercises,  after  being  corrected,  majr  b4 
•opied  into  a  writing  book. 


IN   GRAMMAR.  91 

army  marched.  The  school  was  dismissed.  The  council 
was  divided.  Wrestling  is  dangerous.  Lying  is  wicked. 
Charles  reads.     Age  overtakes.     Poets  sing.     Winds  blow 

Write  subjects  to  the  following  predicates :  — 

Proper  Nouns.  Is  able ;  was  prevented ;  believes ;  sings : 
dances ;  plays ;  is  a  merchant ;  is  a  teacher ;  is  delighted  ; 
must  come ;  is  honorable  ;  is  faithful. 

Model.     Samuel  is  able. 

Common  Nouns.  Run ;  is  content ;  is  laudable ;  is 
pleasant ;  is  consumed ;  can  live ;  write ;  are  trees ;  .  are 
birds  ;  are  fishes ;  is  desirable ;  is  contemptible. 

Model.     Horses  run. 

Collective  Nouns.  Was  divided;  was  convened;  were 
pleased ;  was  defeated ;  was  dismissed. 

Model.     The  school  was  divided. 

What  is  a  proposition  ?  What  is  the  subject  ?  What  is  the  pred- 
icate ?  What  part  of  speech  is  the  subject  commonly  ?  Of  how 
many  parts  does  the  predicate  consist  ?  What  is  the  copula  ? 
( Copula  means  link;  it  links  or  joins  the  attribute  to  the  subject.) 
Are  the  attribute  and  copula  ever  united  ?  What  part  of  speech  is 
the  predicate  then  ?    What  are  the  essential  parts  of  a  sentence  ? 


LESSON   XXIX. 

THE   SUBJECT    MODIFIED    BY   INFLECTION. 

The  subject,  besides  representing  that  of  which 
something  is  affirmed,  may  also  indicate,  by  its 
form  or  by  some  change  in  its  form,  certain  ac ti* 
dental  properties. 


92  FIRST   LESSONS 

These  accidental  pruvrties  of  the  noun  or  proawBf)  rrs  number , 
jwson,  gender,  case,  and  we  usually  indicated  by  gone  change  in 
the  word  itself,  called  inflexion. 

EXEP.OISS. 

Study  Lesson  XIII.,  and  then  analyze  the  following  ex- 
amples, giving  the  number  and  class  of  each  roun:  — 

Columbus  sailed.  Stars  shine.  Jarres  decreed.  Corn- 
wallis  surrendered.  Candia  is  an  istetd.  Socrates  was 
poisoned.  Lions  roar.  Grapes  faR  Trees  decay. 
Churches  stand.  Foxes  are  cunning.  Weeds  overrun. 
.  Benjamin  was  seen.  Silver  shines.  Pencils  are  used 
Washington  was  president.  Kings  are  rulers.  Eggs  are 
broken.     Vinegar  is  sour. 

'  \  'rite  predicates  to  the  plurals  of  the  following  nouns :  — 

Star,  son,  pipe,  monarch,  church,  hero,  fife,  ox,  cargo, 
ship,  man,  child,  lily,  wolf,  wife,  folio,  muff,  negro,  sheep, 
mystery,  vermin,  lady,  turkey,  chief,  hoof,  mouse,  goose,  fly, 
box,  day,  duty,  canto,  grotto,  stratum,  axis. 

Model.     Stars  shine.     Sons  obey. 

Study  Lesson  XIV.,  and  then  analyze  the  following 
propositions,  giving  the  gender  of  each  subject :  — 

Lions  crouch.  Alfred  reigned.  Susan  draws.  Leave 
fall.  Wine  intoxicates.  Planets  shine.  Clouds  disappear 
She-goats  defend.  The  poetess  sings.  Cows  graze.  Cock 
sparrows  chirp.  Weeds  grow.  Sugar  melts.  Parent* 
protect.     Teachers  instruct.     The  heroine  was  defeated. 

Write  subjects  to  the  following  predicates :  — 

Masculine  Gender.     Conquered  ;   is  wise  ;  was  detested , 
•is  a  blacksmith  ;  is  discreet ;  are  confiding ;  are  discharged ; 
is  lame     are  emigrating;  is  benevolent;  is  grateful;  will 
devour;  gnaw;  will  fight;  complain;  eat. 

Feminine  Gender.  Is  brooding ;  lowed ;  is  playing , 
sings  ;  is  cheerful ;  rode  ;  is  a  teacher ;  is  practising ;  cau 
dance ;  was  injured ;  are  anxious ;  are  faithful ;  are 
chirping;   are  attentive. 


IN    GRAMMAR.  93 

Neuter   Gender.     Roll ;    grow ;    is  solid ,  is  deceptive 
blows ;  shines ;  is  falling ;  is  a  vegetable. 

Models.  Alexander  conquered.  The  ht,*  is  blooding 
Stones  roll. 

Study  Lesson  XV.,  and  then  analyze  the  following 
propositions,  and  give  the  person  of  each  subject :  — 

I  am  well.  You  sit.  We  have  come.  He  is  delirious. 
Thou  art  the  man.  Wisdom  is  profitable.  Paul  preached. 
She  is  writing.  It  is  true.  They  labor.  Ye  resist.  Boys 
play.    Larks  sing.    Insects  buzz. 

Write  subjects  in  the  first,  second,  and  third  persons 
respectively  to  each  of  the  following  predicates,  making  such 
changes  in  them  as  may  be  necessary :  — 

Is  late ;  am  exhausted ;  is  plundering ;  is  a  pupil ;  might 
be  educated ;  is  affable ;  art  content ;  play  ;  sing  ;  lead ;  is 
a  mathematician  ;  will  be  satisfied ;  can  find  ;  did  defend ; 
does  reply.  . 

Model.     We  are  late.     Thou  art  late.     He  is  late. 
The  case  of  the  subject  denotes  its'  relation  to  the  predicate,  and 
is  always  nominative  ;  hence  the  following  rule  :  — 

Rule  I.  A  noun  or  pronoun  used  as  the  subject 
of  a  proposition  must  be  in  the  nominative  case. 

Note  1.    An  infinitive  or  substantive  clause  may  be  the  subject. 

Note  2.  In  an  abridged  proposition,*  the  subject  may  remain 
unchanged,  may  be  changed,  or  may  be  wholly  dropped. 

(  1.)  It  remains  unchanged,  when  it  denotes  a  different  person  or 
thing  from  that  of  the  principal  clause,  and  (though  logically  it  is 
still  the  subject)  is  said  to  be  in  the  nominative  case  absolute  with 
the  participle  of  the  predicate ;  as,  "  When  shame  is  losi,  all  virtue 
is  lost ; "  "  Shame  being  lost,  all  virtue  is  lost."  ^ 

(2.)  It  is  changed  to  the  possessive  case,  when  the  abridged  pred- 

*  A  subordinate  proposition  is  said  to  be  abridged  when  one  or  both  of  ltd 
principal  parts  (subject  or  predicate)  undergo  a  change  which  destroys  &» 
assertion,  leaving  it  to  be  incorporated  as  a  part  of  the  principal  clause ;  ao, 
"  The  tempest  vjhich  was  raging  ivith  unwonted  fury,  drove  them  to  ^the 
nearest  shelter ;  "  l*  The  tempest  raging  vAth  unwonted  fury,  &«." 


94  FIRST   LESSONS 

icate,  as  a  noun,  becomes  the  object  of  its  possession ;  as,  "  I  wat 
not  aware  that  he  was  going ;  "   **  I  was  not  aware  of  his  going.1 

(  S.)  It  is  changed  to  the  objective  case,  when  it  follows  a  transi 
tive  verb  and  is  followed  by  the  infinitive  of  the  predicate,  ox 
-.(when  the  infinitive  is  omitted)  by  the  attribute  of  the  predicate ; 
as,  "  We  supposed  that  he  ivas  writing,  was  honest,  or  was  the  com 
mander;"  "We  supposed  him  to  be  writing,  to  be  honest,  or  to  be 
the  commander ;  "  or,  (omitting  the  infinitive,)  "  We  supposed  him 
writing,  supposed  him  honest,  supposed  him  the  commander." 

(4.)  It  is  dropped,  when  it  represents  the  subject  or  object  of 
the  principal  clause,  or,  in  general,  when  it  represents  the  noun 
which  the  subordinate  clause  limits ;  as,  "  I  wish  that  I  might  go ;  n 
"I  wish  to  go;"  "  Reproof  which  is  given  in  public,  hardens  the 
heart ; "  "  Reproof  given  in  public  hardens  the  heart." 

Models  for  Analysis  and  Parsing. 

Parsing  consists  in  naming  a  part  of  speech,  giving  its  modifica- 
tions, relation,  agreement,  or  dependence,  and  the  rule  for  its  con- 
struction. Analysis  consists  in  pointing  out  the  words  or  groups  of 
words  which  constitute  the  elements  of  a  sentence.  Analysis 
should  precede  parsing. 

George  writes. 
It  is  a  simple  sentence,  because  it  contains  but  one 
proposition. 
George .  .  is  the  subject,  because  it  is  that  of  which  the  action 

"  writes  "  is  affirmed. 
Writes .  .  is  the  predicate,  because  it  is  the  action  affirmed  of 

u  George." 
George  .  .  is  a  proper  noun,  of  the  third  person,  singular  number 
masculine  gender,  nominative  case,  and  is  the  subject 
of  the  proposition,  "  George  writes ; "  according  to 
Rule  I.,  "A  noun  or  pronoun  used  as  the  subject  of  a 
proposition  must  be  in  the  nominative  case. 

*  He  is  active. 

It  is  a  simple  sentence,  because  it  contains  but  ona 
proposition. 
Bs  .  .  .  is  a  personal  pronoun,  of  the  third  person,  singular 
number,  masculine  gender,  nominative  case,  and  is  the 
subject  of  the  proposition,  "  He  is  active ;  "  according 
to  Rule  I. 
ft 


IN   GRAMMAR.  95 

EXERCISE. 

Analyze  the  following  propositions,  and  parse  the  sub- 
jects:— 

I  am  prepared.  Jesus  wept.  Milo  lifted.  Monej 
tempted.  Rain  descended.  Abraham  was  faithful.  Job 
was  patient.  Comets  appear.  Planets  revolve.  Solomon 
prayed.  They  will  quarrel.  He  is  ruined.  David  was 
king.  We  must  study.  England  was  invaded.  William 
conquered.     Harold  was  defeated.     Exercise  strengthens 

Stealing  is  base.  Thou  art  seated.  She  is  coming. 
It  rains.  It  snows.  It  lightens.  You  can  sing.  He  is 
detestable.     Fishes  swim. 

Write  subjects  to  the  following  predicates :  — 

Is  a  monster ;  are  coming  ;  is  burning ;  neigh ;  -art  wise  , 
were  handled  ;  is  numbered  ;  is  a  giant ;  are  reptiles ;  are 
vegetables  ;  is  a  beverage  ;  is  impossible  ;  will  be  defeated  ; 
paints ;  draws  ;  is  a  conductor  ;  dances. 

Write  ten  entire  sentences  of  your  own,  having  only 
a  subject  and  predicate ;  select  also  the  subjects  and  predi- 
cates from  ten  sentences  in  your  Reading  Lesson. 

What  may  the  subject  indicate  besides  showing  that  of  which 
something  is  affirmed  ?  What  are  the  accidental  properties  of  the 
subject  ?    How  are  they  indicated  V     Give  Rule  I 


LESSON    XXX. 
THE   PREDICATE   MODIFIED   BY   INFLECTION. 

The  predicate,  besides  representing  what  is 
affirmed,  may  also,  like  the  subject,  indicate  by  its 
form,  or  by  some  change  in  its  form,  certain  acci- 
dental properties. 


96  FIRST   LESSONS 

These  accidental  properties  may  belong  either  to  the  copula  or 
attribute,  or  to  both.  When  the  two  parts  of  the  predicate  are  dis- 
tinct, the  attribute  may  be  (1)  a  noun  or  pronoun,  having  the  same 
properties  as  the  subject,  viz.,  number,  person,  gender,  case  ;  (2)  an 
adjective,  having  comparison  only;  (3)  a  participle,  in  which  ca^e 
it  is  taken  with  the  copula  as  one  word,  and  considered  as  a  form 
of  the  verb.  The  copula,  or  any  verb  may  indicate  person,  number, 
mode,  and  tense. 

When  the  attribute  is  a  noun  or  pronoun,  it  is  called  the  predi 
cate-nominative,  and  is  parsed  by  the  following  rule :  — 

Rule  II.  A  noun  or  pronoun  used  with  the 
copula  to  form  the  predicate,  must  be  in  the  nomi- 
native case. 

Note  IT  The  predicate-nominative  always  denotes  the  same 
person  or  thing  as  the  subject,  and  must  agree  with  it  in  case. 
When  the  predicate-nominative  denotes  a  person,  it  usually  agrees 
with  the  subject  in  gender,  number,  and  case. 

Note  2.  By  a  peculiar  idiom  of  the  English  language,  the 
neuter  pronoun  it,  as  subject,  may  represent  a  noun  or  pronoun  as 
predicate  of  any  number,  person,  or  gender ;  as,  "  It  is  I ; "  "  It  is 
they ; "  "  It  is  James ; "  "  It  is  she." 

Note  8.  This  rule  applies  when  copulative  verbs  are  used ;  as, 
1  He  is  becoming  an  artist. 

Note  4.  An  infinitive  or  substantive  clause  may  be  used  as  the 
predicate-nominative;  as,  "The  house  is  to  be  searched ; "  "My 
impression  is,  that  he  will  come." 

Note  5.  In  an  abridged  proposition,  (see  note  at  the  bottom  of 
p.  93,)  the  predicate-nominative  may  remain  unchanged,  may  be 
changed,  but  can  never  be  dropped,  (see  note  2,  Rule  I.) 

(1.)  It  remains  unchanged  in  the  nominative,  when  the  subject 
remains  in  the  nominative ;  as,  "  As  a  youth  was  their  leader, 
what  could  they  do?"  "A  youth  being  their  leader,  what 
could  they  do  ?  " 

(2.)  It  remains  unchanged  in  the  nominative,  relating  logically 
(not  grammatically)  to  the  omitted  subject,  when  in  connection 
with  the  infinitive,  or  participle  of  the  copula,  it  forms  a  verbal 


IN   GRAMMAR.  97 

noon,  as  "  That  one  should  be  a  thief,  is  strange;"  *  Being  a 
thief,  or  to  be  a  thief,  is  strange ; "  "I  was  not  aware  that  it  was 
he;"  "I  was  not  aware  of  its  being  he." 

(3.)  It  is  changed  to  the  objective  when  the  subject  is  changed 
to  the  objective;  or  when  the  noun  which  the  omitted  subject 
would  represent,  (see  Note  2,  (4)  Rule  I.,)  is  in  the  objective ;  as, 
"I  believed  that  it  was  he;"  "I  believed  it  to  be  him."  "We 
found  a  plant  which  is  called  the  lilac;"  "We  found  a  plant 
called  the  lilac." 

Models  for  Parsing  the  Predicate-Nominative. 

Gold  is  a  metal. 

Metal  is  a  common  noun,  of  the  third  person,  singular  number, 
neuter  gender,  nominative  case,  and  with  "is"  forms  the 
predicate  of  the  proposition,  "  Gold  is  a  metal;"  according 
to  Rule  II. :  A  noun  or  pronoun  used  with  the  copula,  to 
form  the  predicate,  must  be  in  the  nominative  case. 

He  is  called  a  hero. 

Hero  is  a  common  noun,  of  the  third  person,  singular  number, 
masculine  gender,  nominative  case,  and,  with  "is  called," 
forms  the  predicate  of  the  proposition,  "He  is  called  a 
hero;"  according  to  Rule  II.:  "A  noun  or  pronoun,  used 
with  the  copula  to  form  the  predicate,  must  be  in  the  nomi- 
native case." 
Note.    Observe  that  this  proposition  has  two  attributes,  called 

and  hero,  both  of  which,  with  is.  constitute  the  predicate. 

EXERCISE. 

Analyze  the  following  propositions,  parting  the  subject* 
and  attributes:  — 

Demosthenes  was  an  orator.  I  am  he.  It  is  I.  It  is 
Abraham.  Horses  are  animals.  He  was  considered  a 
genius.  She  is  a  poetess.  Madison  was  elected  president. 
We  are  pupils.  He  is  deemed  a  workman.  They  have 
become  teachers.      Borneo  is  an    island.      Algebra  is   a 

9  o 


98  FIRST  LESSORS 

science.  Air  is  a  fluid.  Water  is  a  liquid.  Oxygen  is  a 
gas. 

Write  a  subject  and  copula  to  each  of  the  following  nouns 
and  pronouns  taken  as  attributes:  — 

You,  soldier,  treatise,  I,  she,  king,  trees,  vegetables, 
Andrew,  Benjamin,  animals,  virtue,  book,  they,  we,  serpent, 
fish,  insect,  reptile,  flower,  plant,  mineral,  bay,  harbor, 
planet,  comet 

Model.    It  is  you.    He  was  a  soldier. 

When  the  attribute  of  the  predicate  is  an  adjective,  it  may  be 
varied  to  indicate  comparison ;  it  is  called  the  predicate-adjective 
wad  should  be  parsed  by  the  following  rule :  — 

Rule  III.  An  adjective  used  with  the  copula 
to  form  the  predicate,  belongs  to  the  subject. 

Note  1.  In  other  languages,  the  relation  of  the  adjective  to  the 
subject  is  indicated  by  an  agreement  in  number,  gender,  and  case. 

Note  2.  Adjectives  may  thus  belong  to  a  substantive  phrase  or 
clause;  as,  "  To  steal  is  base  ;  "  "  That  the  sun  will  be  eclipsed  is 
evident." 

Note  3.  Sometimes  an  adverb,  or  even  a  preposition,  is  joined 
to  the  copula,  to  form  the  predicate;  as,  "Thy  glorious  day  is 
o'er; "  w  The  boy  is  cheerful,  but  his  brother  is  not  so." 

Note  5.  In  an  abridged  proposition,  the  predicate-adjective, 
when  taken  in  connection  with  the  infinitive  or  participle  of  the 
copulaK  seems  to  be  used  independently,  yet  it  relates  logically,  like 
the  predicate-nominative,  (see  Note  5,  (2)  Rule  II.,)  to  the  omitted 
subject;  as,  u  TJiat  one  should'be  idle  is  criminal ;  "  "  To  be  idlb 
is  criminal ; "  "  He  was  guilty  of  being  inactive. 

Note  6.  It  will  be  observed  that,  in  abridged  propositions 
three  cases  arise,  which,  grammatically,  may  be  called  independ 
ent.  The  first  relates  to  the  subject-nominative,  (note  2,  (1)  Rul* 
I.)  —  the  second,  to  the  predicate-nominative,  (note  5,  (1)  Rule  II.) 
—  the  third,  to  the  predicate-adjective,  (note  5,  Rule  LTI.)  Yet  in 
•ach,  the  logical  relation  is  not  changed. 


IN    GRAMMAR.  99 

Models  for  Parsing  the  Predicate-Adjective. 

He  is  benevolent. 

Benevolent  is  an  adjective,  of  the  positive  degree,  (compared, 
benevolent,  more  benevolent,  most  benevolent,)  and  forms 
with  "is"  the  predicate  of  the  proposition,  "He  is 
benevolent."  It  belongs  to  "Ae,"  according  to  Rule 
III. :  "  An  adjective  used  with  the  copula  to  form  the 
predicate,  belongs  to  the  subject." 

Richard  is  older  [than  John.]  * 

Older  ...  is  an  adjective,  of  the  comparative  degree,  (compared 
old,  older,  oldest,)  and  forms  with  "is"  the  predicate  of 
the  proposition,  "  Richard  is  older."  It  belongs  to  the 
subject,  according  to  Rule  III. 

Achilles  was  the  bravest  [of  the  Greeks.] 

Bravest  .  .  is  an  adjective,  of  the  superlative  degree,  (compared 
brave,  braver,  bravest,)  and  forms  with  "was"  the 
predicate  of  the  proposition,  "Achilles  was,"  &c.  It 
belongs  to  "  Achilles,"  according  to  Rule  III. 

EXERCISE. 

Study  Lesson  XVII.,  and  then  analyze  the  following 
examples,  and  parse  the  adjectives^ — 

Washington  was  wise.  The  country  is  free.  The  furni- 
ture is  old.  The  child  is  weak.  The  wind  is  cold.  The 
ice  is  thin.  The  water  is  deep.  The  soil  is  rich.  The 
boards  are  rough.  The  general  is  brave.  Edward  is  sick. 
Life  is  short.  The  streets  are  wide.  The  dog  is  faithful. 
George  is  industrious.  The  constable  is  active.  Gold  is 
precious.  Diamonds  are  combustible.  The  sun  is  brilliant 
The  days  are  long. 

Write  predicate-adjectives  to  complete  the  following :  — 

Jonas  is.     The  moon  is.     The  ocean  is.     Truth  is.     He 

*  The  words  in  the  brackets  should  be  omitted  in  analyzing,  ag  the  pupil 
\a  noi  prepared  to  explain  them. 


100  FIRST  LESSONS 

is.  Washington  was.  Arnold  was.  Flowers  are.  I  am. 
Ice  is.     Hoses  are. 

Model.    Jonas  is  sick. 

Write  a  subject  and  copula  to  each  of  the  following 
adjectives  used  as  attributes  :  — . 

Handsome,  powerful,  awful,  warm,  mild,  gentle,  able,  sad, 
mournful,  judicious,  wise,  discreet,  unsuccessful,  kind. 

Model.     The  horses  are  handsome. 

Write  ten  sentences  of  your  own,  using  a  predicate  adjective. 

When  the  attribute  is  a  verb,  it  has  the  same  accidental  proper 
ties  as  the  copula,  and  should  be  parsed  by  the  following  rule :  — 

Rule  IV.  The  verb  must  agree  with  its  subject 
in  number  and  person. 

Note  1.  This  rule  applies  to  the  copula  when  distinct  from  the 
attribute,  or  to  the  verb  when  both  are  united;  as,  "Thou  art 
sleeping ; "   u  Thou  sleepes^." 

Note  2.  Observe  that  the  form  art  indicates  the  number  and ' 
person,  precisely  in  the  same  way  as  does  the  termination  est. 

Note  3.  To  this  rule  there  properly  is  no  exception.  There  is, 
however,  an  apparent  exception  in  the  case  of  collective  nouns, 
which,  in  the  singular  number,  may  take  a  verb  in  the  plural.  If, 
in  using  such  a  noun,  reference  is  had  to  the  individuals  forming 
the  collection,  the  verb  should  always  be  plural;  otherwise  it 
should  be  singular. 

Note  4.     When  the  subject  is  compound  apply  Eule  XII. 

EXERCISE. 

Study  Lesson  XVHT.  and  XIX.,  and  then  analyze  the 
following  sentences,  giving  the  number  and  person  of  each 
terb  :  — 

I  write.  He  speaks.  We  say.  They  are  riding.  She 
is  painting.  You  intimate.  Thou  thinkest.  Gibbon  nar- 
rated. Francis  drives.  Plants  thrive.  Trees  grow. 
Friends  advise.  Teachers  direct.  It  rains.  They  run. 
Stars  shine. 


IN   GRAMMAR.  101 

Write  each  of  these  sentences,  separating  the  copula  from 
the  attribute. 

Model.    I  am  writing. 

Write  subjects  to  the  following  verbs,  taking  care  to  use  the 
right  number  and  person:  — 

Sleeps,  consent,  chatters,  walkest,  are  studying,  command, 
preach,  whistle,  delays,  abides,  live,  beseech,  betray,  con- 
signest,  disfigure,  is  contriving,  was  finishing,  art  spinning, 
mayst  stop,  does  deliberate,  wilt  stay. 

Model.     Susan  sleeps.     We  consent 

Correct  the  following  sentences :  — 

James  think.  I  readest.  We  speaks.  You  writes. 
Henry  recitest.  She  complain.  They  viewedst.  Thou  is 
learning.  We  art  ready.  Some  says.  He  lead.  George 
art  weeping. 

Model.    James  thinks.    James  think  is  incorrect,  because 
think  does  not  agree  with  James  in  number,  according  to 
*  Rule  IV. 

Study  Lesson  XX.  and  then  analyze  the  following  propo- 
sitions, giving  the  mode  of  each  verb.  Give  also  the  number 
and  person  according  to  Rule  IV. 

The  scales  were  turned.  Charles  was  abandoned.  The 
count  was  seized.  We  can  dance.  You  may  study.  He 
is,  silent.  Arthur  was  murdered.  Stop.  Stand  still.  Be 
careful.  Be  attentive.  James  was  anxious.  Truth  is 
mighty.  Wisdom  exalts.  Clouds  overhang.  Thunder 
roars.  The  lightning  is  vivid.  Be  wise.  Awake.  He 
may  go.  Study  You  must  write.  Be  gone.  Arnold 
was  a  traitor.     Esau  was  hated.     It  may  rain. 

Write  predicates  to  the  following  subjects:  — 

Indicative  mode.  Besiegers,  Swedes,  French.  Bonaparte,, 
procession,  ladies,  enemy,  skill,  emperor,  he,  it  government, 
conventions,  war. 

Model.    The  besiegers  were  repulsed, 
9* 


102     .  FIRST   LESSONS 

Potential  Mode.  Fleet,  column,  congress,  boys,  sugar, 
coys,  books,  slates,  ink,  virtue,  temperance,  education,  duty, 
mischief. 

Model.  The  fleet  may  he  overtaken.  A  column  must 
be  erected. 

Convert  the  following  infinitives  into  the  imperative  mode :  — 

To  write ;  to  study ;  to  play ;  to  sing ;  to  read ;  to  begin ; 
to  delay ;  to  be  active ;  to  be  true ;  to  labor ;  to  travel ;  to 
be  acquitted ;  to  indicate ;  to  be  happy ;  to  leave ;  to  wash 
to  strike ;  to  love. 

Model.     Write,  or  Write  thou. 

Note.  The  subject  comes  after  the  verb  in  the  imperative  mode, 
and  is  usually  omitted  or  said  to  be  understood. 

Change  the  modes  in  your  written  examples,  —  the  indica- 
tive to  the  potential,  the  potential  to  the  indicative,  and  so  on. 

Model.  The  besiegers  were  repulsed.  The  besiegers 
might  be  repulsed.     Be  ye  repulsed.     To  be  repulsed. 

Analyze  the  following  propositions,  and  give  the  tense  of 
each  verb :  — 

The  storm  abates.  James  was  disappointed.  Reuben's 
painted.  Nelson  conquered.  We  have  come.  Desist. 
Tarry.  They  must  have  left.  You  had  been  left.  I  might 
have  sailed.  We  cannot  stop.  I  may  have  forgotten.  The 
sun  will  be  eclipsed.  The  moon  will  have  set.  Thou  hadst 
been  sitting. 

Tell  the  voice  of  the  above  verbs. 

Analyze  the  following  sentences,  and  tell  whether  the  ve?b 
is  in  the  common,  emphatic,  or  progressive  form :  — 

The  carriages  move.     The  captain  is  commanding.     Th 
leaves  do  wither.     The  fruit  must  fall.     The  waves  hav 
been  dashing.     He  will  have  stopped.     He  did  stop.     Thou 
dost  speak. 

If  possible,  wt  ite  ten  sentences,  having  the  subject  in  each,  a 
noun  in  the  first  or  second  person. 


m   GRAMMAR,  103 

Change  the  forms  of  the  verb  in  the  exercise  on  p.  101. 

Model.  The  scales  were  'turned.  The  scales  were 
turning.     The  scales  turned.     The  scales  di d  turn. 

Take  the  list  of  infinitives  on  p.  102,  write  subjects  to 
each ,  and  let  all  the  predicates  (that  admit  of  it)  be  changed 
to  the  passive  voice. 

Take  the  examples  beginning,  u  The  storm  abates" p.  102, 
<ind  write  each  in  four  different  tenses. 

Model,  The  storm  abated.  The  storm  will  abate.  The 
storm  had  abated.    The  storm  will  have  abated. 

Models  for  Parsing  the  Verb. 

The  boy  is  diligent. 

h is  an  irregular  intransitive  verb,  (principal  parts, 

be,  was,  been,)  in  the  indicative  mode,  present 
tense,  third  person,  singular  number,  and  agrees 
with  its  subject,  "boy ;  "  according  to  Eule  IV. : 
"  The  verb  must  agree,"  &c. 

James  should  have  come. 

Should  have  come  is  an  irregular  intransitive  verb,  in  the  potential 
mode,  past  perfect  tense,  third  person,  singular 
number,  and  agrees  with  its  subject,  "James;" 
according  to  Rule  IV. 

Depart. 

Depart is  a  regular  intransitive  verb,  in  the  imperative 

mode,  present  tense,  second  person,  singular  num- 
ber, and  agrees  with  thou  understood  ;  according 
to  Rule  IV. 

Children  should  obey  their  parents. 
Sftoutd  obey  ...  is  a  regular  transitive  verb,  (principal  parts  obeyy 
obeyed,  obeyed,)  active  voice,  potential  mode,  past 
tense,  third  person,  plural  number,  and  agrees 
with  its  subject,  "children;"  according  to  Rule 
IV. 


104  FIRST  LESSONS 

Note.  The  relation  of  the  transitive  verb  to  its  object  will  be 
fully  explained  in  a  subsequent  Lesson. 

He  is  deceived. 

Ft  deceived  is  a  regular  passive  verb,  (transitive  verb,  passive 
voice,)  (principal  parts,  deceive,  deceived,  deceived,)  in 
the  indicative  mode,  present  tense,  third  person,  sin 
gular  number,  and  agrees  with  its  subject,  "he;1' 
according  to  Rule  IV. 
Note.    The  uses  of  the  subjunctive,  infinitive,  and  the  participles, 

will  be  explained  hereafter. 

EXERCISE. 

Write  subjects  to  the  following  verbs :  — 

Teach,  instruct,  learn,  speak,  say,  utter,  weep,  lament, 
rejoice,  bloom,  laugh,  move,  bring,  obey,  try,  bite,  dance, 
fight,  praise,  censure,  adorn,  wound,  punish,  devour,  croak, 
whistle,  amuse,  disturb,  be  committed. 

Let  the  first  twelve  be  in  the  indicative  mode,  two  in  each 
tense. 

MODEL,   FOR   TWO    TENSES. 

(  John  teaches.  (  He  learned. 

Fres'    I  James  instructs.  Fast  Tense>    I  We  spoke. 

Let  the  next  twelve  be  in  the  potential  mode,  three  in  each, 
tense.  (See  model^  above.)  —  Write  the  remainder  in  the 
imperative  mode.  Give  the  infinitive  and  participles  to  ten 
of  the  above  verbs. 

Analyze  and  parse  the  following  sentences,  applying  the 
four  rules  which  are  used  in  the  construction  of  the  subject 
and  predicate.  (See  the  preceding  models  for  analyzing 
and  parsing.) 

John  was  a  disciple.  Jesus  was  betrayed.  David  is 
called  the  psalmist.  You  can  learn.  He  will  be  writing. 
He  had  been  defeated.  Stop.  Be  active.  Become  a  sol 
dier.    They  should  be  industrious.     He  might  have  beea 


IN    GRAMMAR.  105 

captured.      George    may  have    returned.       Do    be  still. 
Henry  will  have  been  planting.     I  spoke.     Do  stay. 

Note.  If  the  preceding  exercises  should  not  be  sufficient  to 
make  the  pupil  perfectly  familiar  with  the  properties  and  construc- 
tion of  the  subject  and  predicate,  they  should  be  multiplied  at  the 
discretion  of  the  teacher.  It  is  all  important  that  these  two  ele 
ments  of  the  sentence  be  perfectly  understood  before  proceeding 
farther. 

What  may  the  predicate  judicate,  besides  showing  what  is 
affirmed  ?  What  is  the  first  form  of  the  attribute  called  ?  Give 
Rule  II.  What  is  the  second  form  of  the  attribute  called  ?  Give 
Rule  III.  What  is  the  third  form  of  the  attribute  called  ?  Give 
Rule  IV. 


LESSON    XXXI. 

CLASSES    OF   SENTENCES. 

All  sentences  are  either  declarative,  interrogative, 
imperative,  or  exclamatory. 

A  declarative  sentence  is  used  to  state  a  fact 
or  the  possibility  of  a  fact ;  as,  "  I  saw  George  ; " 
"  You  can  see  George."  % 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  verb  of  a  declarative  sentence  may  be 
either  in  the  indicative  or  potential  mode. 

An  interrogative  sentence  is  used  to  ask  a  ques- 
tion ;  as,  "  Whom  did  you  see  ?  "  "  Can  I  go  ?  " 

It  will  be  seen  here  that  the  interrogative  sentence  may  inquire 
for  a  fact  or  the  possibility  of  a  fact. 

An  imperative  sentence  is  used   to   express   a 
command,  an  entreaty,  an  exhortation,  or  a  prayer 
as,  "  Let  us  go ;  "  "  May  the  truth  prevail," 


106  FIRST  LESSONS 

An  exclamatory  sentence  is  either  a  declarative, 
interrogative,  or  imperative  sentence,  so  uttered  as 
to  express  passion  or  emotion. 

EXERCISE. 

Tell  which  of  the  following  sentences  are  declarative, 
which  interrogative,  duldch  imperative,  and  which 
are  exclamatory. 

The  heat  is  oppressive.  How  warm  it  is !  Will  it  rain  ? 
Listen.  Does  it  thunder  ?  The  clouds  are  black.  Who 
comes  ?  Are  you  writing  ?  Can  we  play  ?  Be  careful. 
Wait.  Has  he  gone  ?  Write.  Come !  Charge !  The 
storm  abates.     The  hills  resound. 

Convert  the  sentences  in  the  exercise  on  p.  105  into  inter- 
rogative sentences.     Change  ( . )  to  (?) 

Model.     Was  John  a  disciple  ? 

Write  five  interrogative,  five  imperative,  and  jive  exclama- 
tory sentences. 

How  many  classes  of  sentences  are  there  ?  Name  them.  What 
is  a  declarative  sentence  ?  What  is  an  interrogative  sentence  ? 
What  is  an  imperative  sentence  ?  What  is  an  exclamatory  sen 
tence  ?    Give  an  example  of  each. 


LESSON   XXXII. 

THE   SUBJECT  MODIFIED   BY   THE  ADDITION   OP 

SINGLE   WORDS. 

Note.  The  pupil  has  seen  that  the  subject  and  predicate  may  be 
modified  by  changing  their  forms.  He  is  now  to  see  that  they  may 
be  still  farther  modified  by  additional  words.  These  additions  may 
be  single  word? f  phrases,  or  clauses. 


Vv       OF  THE  '* 

(UNIVEESIT 

IN   GRAMMAR.      \.    /*  y  107 


•tp 


The  subject  taken  with  the  words  wmSiriimit  it, 
is  called  the  omiplex  or  logical  subject ;  when  taken 
apart  from  these  words,  it  is  called  the  grammatical 
subject,  or  simply,  the  subject. 

Thus,  in  "  A  large  house  was  erected ; "  "A  large  house  "  is  the 
complex  subject,  and  "house  "  is  the  grammatical  subject. 

The  subject  maybe  restricted  in  its  application, — 

(1.)  Without  affecting  any  of  its  properties  ;  as, 
"  two  men ;  "'  "  them  men  ; "  — 

(2.)  By  designating  some  property  ;  as,  "  good 
men ; "  — 

(3.)  By  identifying  it ;  as,  "  Paul  the  apostle  ;  " 
"  Peter  the  hermit ;"  — 

(  4.)  By  representing  it  as  an  object  possessed; 
as,  David? s  harp. 

The  first  two  limitations  are  effected  by  adjective 
words;  the  second  two,  by  nouns  or  pronouns. 

Any  word  or  group  of  words  which  limits  the 
subject  or  the  noun  in  any  relation,  answering  the 
questions  what?  what  hind?  how  many?  of  what? 
or  whose?  is  called  an  adjective  element ;  as,  "  In- 
dustrious men;"  "Men  of  Industry;"  "Men 
who  are  industrious." 

All  adjective  words  are  divided  into  two  classes,  —  limiting  and 
qualifying.  When  used  as  modifiers,  they  are  parsed  by  the  fol 
lowing  rule  •  — 

Kule.  V.  An  adjective  or  participle  used  as  a 
modifier,  belongs  to  the  noun  or  pronoun  which  it 
limits. 


108  FIRST   LESSONS 

Models  for  Analyzing  and  Parsing. 

Tall  oaks  bend. 

It  is  a  simple  sentence  because  it  contains  but 
one  proposition. 
Oaks .  ...  is  the  subject,  because  it  is  that  of  which  the 

action  "  bend  "  is  affirmed. 

Bend is  the  predicate,  because  it  is  the  action  affirmed 

oi  "oaks." 
laks  (the  subject)  is  limited  by  "  tall,"  which  shows  what  hind  of 
oaks,  and  is  an  adjective  element. 

Toll  oaks is  the  complex  subject. 

Tall is  a  qualifying  adjective,  of  the  positive  degree, 

^  (compared  tall,  taller,  tallest,)  and  is  used  as  a 

modifier  of  the  subject ;  according  to  Rule  V., 
"  An  adjective  or  participle  used  as  a  modifier, 
belongs  to  the  noun  or  pronoun  which  it  limits." 

This  truth  is  clear. 

Note.     Analyze  as  in  the  previous  example. 

This is  a  limiting  adjective,  (not  compared,)  and  ia 

a  modifier  of  the  subject;  according  to  Rule  V. 

Note.  Clear  is  also  an  adjective,  but  it  is  used  as  the  predi 
cate  of  the  proposition,  (not  a  modifier,)  and  is  parsed  by  Rule  III 

Bengal  tigers  are  ferocious. 

Bengal is   a  limiting  adjective,  denoting  place,   (not 

compared,)  and  is  used  as  a  modifier  of  the 
subject,  according  to  Rule  Y. 

Note  1.  Adjectives  which  imply  number,  should  agree  in  num 
ber  with  the  nouns  to  which  they  belong ;  as,  "  all  men;  "  "sev 
eral  men."  When  two  numerals  precede  a  noun,  one  singular  and 
the  other  plural,  the  plural  should  be  placed  next  to  the  noun ;  as, 
M  the  first  two  lines,"  not  "  the  two  first  lines." 

Note  2.  When  objects  are  contrasted,  that  refers  to  the  first 
and  this  to  the  last  mentioned ;  as,  "  Wealth  and  poverty  are  both 
temptations ;  that  tends  to  excite  pride,  this  discontentment. 

Note  3.    In  the  use  of  the  indefinite  article,  a  should  be  placed 
before  the  sound  of  a  consonant,  and  an  before  that  of  a  vowel 
as,  " a  house  ; "  "a  [y]  union ; "  an  inch  -  "  "on  Aour," 


IN   GRAMMAR.  109 

Note  4.  When  the  article,  or  any  other  merely  limiting  word, 
stands  before  two  connected  adjectives,  ( 1,)  it  should  be  repeated, 
if  they  belong  to  different  objects  ;  as,  "  a  white  and  a  red  flag," 
1.  e.,  two  flags ;  ( 2,)  it  should  be  used  but  once,  if  they  belong  to 
the  same  object;  as,  "  this  tall  and  beautiful  tree,"  i.  e.,  one  tree. 

Note  5.  By  a  peculiar  idiom,  the  is  used  with  comparatives,  to 
denote  proportionate  equality ;  as,  "  The  more  I  see  it,  ike  better  I 
Like  it." 

Note  6.  The  adjective  is  often  used  as  a  noun,  the  noun  to 
which  it  belongs  being  understood ;  as,  "  The  good  are  respected." 
On  the  other  hand  the  noun  is  often  used  as  an  adjective ;  as, 
"  Gold  beads." 

Note  7.  One  adjective  often  limits  the  complex  idea  expressed 
by  another  adjective  and  a  noun  ;  as,  "  Two  old  horses." 

Note  8.  The  predicate  adjective  or  participle,  following  copula- 
tive verbs,  generally  indicates  the  manner  of  the  action,  while,  at 
the  same  time,  it  denotes  some  property  of  the  subject ;  as,  "  The 
boy  was  made  sick." 

Note  9.  When  two  objects  or  sets  of  objects  are  compared,  the 
comparative  degree  is  generally  used ;  as,  "  George  is  taller  than 
William,  or  is  the  taller  of  the  two  ;  "  "  My  brother  and  sister  are 
older  than  his  brother  and  sister." 

Note  10.  When  more  than  two  objects  are  compared,  the 
superlative  degree  is  used ;  as,  "  Achilles  was  the  bravest  of  the 
Greeks." 

EXERCISE. 

Analyze  the  following  examples,  pointing  out  and  parsing 
the  limiting  and  the  qualifying  adjectives  :  — 

These  books  are  torn.  That  man  is  lame.  Industrious 
men  are  rewarded.  Each  soldier  was  paid.  Three  bears 
were  killed.  Many  fishes  were  caught.  Old  boards  were 
burnt.  This  story  was  told.  Any  price  will  be  paid.  Can 
three  horses  be  purchased  ?  Do  all  birds  sing  ?  What 
monster  is  that  ?  Early  rising  is  recommended.  Limiting 
adjectives  can  be  distinguished.  The  rising  sun  is  beau- 
tiful. 


10 


110  FIRST   LESSONS 

Apply  limiting  adjectives  to  the  subjects  of  the  following 
ser.te7ices :  — 

Horse  neighs.  Arts  are  improved.  Citizens  complain. 
Business  is  completed.  Soldier  stood.  Dog  ran.  Cloud 
is  black.  Hen  is  dead.  Duck  swam.  Storm  did  abate. 
tVind  blew.  Rain  fell.  Men  were  captured.  >Walk  was 
taken.    Book  is  useful.    Houses  are  built.    Ride  is  pleasant 

Model.     That  horse  neighs. 

Write  twelve  enure  sentences,  applying  limiting  adjectives 
to  the  subjects. 

Apply  qualifying  adjectives  to  the  subjects  of  the  following 
propositions :  — 

Maxim  is  given.  Scriptures  teach.  Men  desire.  Reproof 
hardens.  Habits  should  be  avoided.  Counsels  were  given. 
Character  shines.     Cottage  stood. 

Write  predicates  to  the  following  subjects,  limiting  each 
subject  by  some  qualifying  adjective  or  participle  :  — 

Lady,  paper,  lord,  cousin,  light,  darkness,  ambassador, 
army,  commissioner,  tiger,  traitor,  tutor,  pupil,  window, 
cellar,  chamber,  chancellor,  monk,  friar,  countess. 

Model.     The  good  lady  assisted. 

Write  subjects  to  the  following  predicates,  find  let  each  be 
limited  by  a  limiting  and  one  or  more  qualifying  adjectives :  — 

Was  prepared ;  was  made ;  was  served  up ;  had  scat- 
tered ;  is  desirable  ;  were  tamed ;  is  delightful ;  had  arrived ; 
can  jump ;  might  have  slept ;  did  eat ;  could  fight ;  was 
avoided ;  could  have  been  stopped ;  may  be  upset ;  was 
emptied ;  sailed ;  was  prostrated. 

Model.     That  sumptuous  feast  was  prepared. 
The  subject  may  be  limited  by  a  noun  or  pronoun  used  to  explain 
it  by  designating  its  office,  rank,  character,  or  otherwise  identifying 
it;  as,  "Peter  the  hermit  preached  the  first  crusade." 


IN    GRAMMAR.  Ill 

The  limiting  noun  or  pronoun  must  represent  the  same  person  or 
thing  as  the  limited  noun. 

A  noun  «r  pronoun  thus  used  is  said  to  be  in  apposition  with  the 
noun  which  it  limits,  and  is  to  be  parsed  by  the  following  rule  :  — 

1  Rule  VI.  A  noun  or  pronoun  used  to  identify 
another  noun  or  pronoun,  is  put  by  apposition  in  the 
same  case  ;  as,  "  His  brother  Greorge  was  absent." 

Note  1.  When  the  limiting  noun  denotes  a  person,  it  generally 
agrees  with  the  limited,  in  number,  gender,  and  case. 

Note  2.  The  noun  in  apposition  assumes  the  class,  office,  rank, 
or  identity  of  another  noun,  while  the  predicate  nominative  affirms 
it ;  as,  "  George  the  king;  "  "  George  was  the  king." 

Note  3.  A  noun  in  the  plural,  may  be  represented,  not  by  one, 
but  by  two  or  more  nouns  which  together  are  equivalent  to  it ;  as, 
"  The  victims,  a  brother  and  a  sister."  The  reverse  of  this  rule  is 
equally  true  ;  as,  "  Intemperance,  oppression,  and  fraud,  vices  of 
the  age." 

Note  4.  Two  or  more  proper  names,  or  a  title  and  a  proper 
name,  applied  to  one  person,  though  in  apposition,  should  be  taken 
as  one  complex  noun  ;  as,  "  George  Washington ; "  "  General 
Gates." 

Model  for  Analyzing  and  Parsing. 

King  Charles  was  beheaded. 

It  is  a  simple  sentence,  because  it  contains  but  one 

proposition. 

King is  the  subject.* 

Was  beheaded  is  the  predicate. 

King is  limited  by  "  Charles,"  and  is  an  adjective  element, 

used  to  identify  the  "  king."     "  King  Charles  "  is 

the  complex  subject. 
Charles  ....  is  a  proper  noun,  of  the  third   person,    singular 

number,  nominative  case,  and  is  used  to  identify 

"king  ;"  according  to  Rule  VI.     "A noun  or  pro 

noun,"  &c. 

*  The  definitions  may  be  omitted  when  the  pupil  becomes  familiar  with 


112  FIRST  LESSONS 

EXERCISE. 

Analyze  the  following  sentences,  parsing  the  nouns  in 
apposition :  — 

The  patriarch  Abraham  was  accounted  faithful.  Paul, 
the  apostle,  was  a  martyr.  The  emperor  Nero  was  a  cruel 
tyrant.  Milton,  the  poet,  was  blind.  The  disciple  John  was 
beloved.  The  martyr  Stephen  was  stoned.  The  great 
navigator  Columbus  was  maltreated.  Henry,  the  scholar{ 
was  crowned  king. 

Write  twelve  sentences  limiting  the  subject  by  a  noun  in 
apposition. 

The  subject  may  be  limited  by  a  noun  or  pronoun  which  repre- 
sents it  as  an  object  of  possession  ;  as,  "  Henry's  book  fell." 

A  noun  or  pronoun  thus  used  to  limit  the  subject  is  parsed  by 
the  following  rule :  — 

Eule  VII.  A  noun  or  pronoun  used  to  limit 
another  noun  by  denoting  possession,  must  be  in  the 
possessive  case  ;  as,  "  Stephen's  courage  failed." 

Note  1.  When  two  or  more  nouns  in  the  possessive  case  are 
connected,  —  1st,  if  the  object  possessed  belongs  to  the  two  con 
jointly,  the  sign  of  possession  should  be  applied  to  the  last  only ; 
as,  "Little  and  Brown's  store ;  "  —  but,  2d,  if  different  objects,  having 
the  same  name,  are  possessed,  the  sign  of  possession  ('s)  should 
belong  to  them  separately  ;  as,  "  Greenleaf's  and  Emerson's  Arith 
metic." 

Note  2.  Two  or  more  nouns  in  apposition,  whether  used  as  one 
complex  noun  or  otherwise,  have  the  sign  of  possession  annexed  to 
the  last  only  ;  as,  "  General  Washington's  command ; "  "John  the 
Baptist's  head." 

Note  3.  When  the  noun  in  the  possessive  is  limited  by  a 
preposition  and  its  object,  the  sign  of  possession  follows  the  whole 
expression  ;  as,  "  The  duke  of  Wellington's  sword." 


IN   GRAMMAR.      .  113 

Model  for  Analysis  and   Parsing. 
i 
His  hand  trembles. 

It  is  a  simple  sentence,  because  it  contains  but  one  propo 
sition. 

Hand .  .   is  the  subject.     (Why  ?)  / 

Trembles  is  the  predicate.     (Why  ?) 

His  hand  is  the  complex  subject.     (Why  ?) 

Hand  .  .  is  limited  by  "  his,"  which  denotes  whose  han  ,  and  is  an 
adjective  element. 

His  ....  is  a  personal  pronoun,  third  person,  singular  number, 
possessive  case,  and  is  the  modifier  of  "  hand ;  "  accord- 
ing to  Rule  VII. 

EXERCISE. 

Analyze  the  following  sentences,  parsing  the  modifier  of 
the  subject :  — 

The  rook's  nest  was  destroyed.  The  bird's  beak  was 
broken.  Our  lesson  is  easy.  My  task  is  completed.  Wil- 
liam's farm  is  productive.     Rufus's  garden  is  watered. 

Write  twelve  sentences  limiting  the  subject  by  a  noun  01 
pronoun  in  the  possessive  case. 

Analyze  and  parte  the  following  miscellaneous  ex- 
amples :  — 

Three  birds  flew.  The  man  awoke.  Good  food  was 
provided.  Every  soldier  escaped.  All  men  are  mortal. 
Twenty  days  have  passed.  Is  your  lesson  easy  ?  Wis- 
dom's ways  are  pleasant.  The  king's  council  might  have 
been  able.  Was  John  the  Baptist  beheaded  ?  The  planet 
Venus  has  risen.  Sirius,  the  dog-star,  is  visible.  Boston, 
the  capital,  is  populous.  The  goddess  Discord  was  offended. 
Beautiful  plants  were  sold.  Old  iron  is  wanted.  Becket, 
the  archbishop,  was  considered  a  martyr. 

Write  twenty  sentences  illustrating  the  four  hinds  of 
modifiers. 

10  *        H 


Hi  FIRST   LESSONS 

In  hew  many  ways  may  the  subject  (or  any  noun)  be  restricted 
in  its  application  ?  What  is  the  complex  or  logical  subject  ? 
What  is  the  grammatical  subject  ?  What  is  an  adjective  element  ? 
Give  the  rule  for  parsing  the  adjective  and  participle.  In  what 
way  may  the  subject  be  limited  so  as  to  identify  it  ?  What  is  the 
meaning  of  identify  f  In  the  expression  "  Arnold,  the  traitor,"  how 
does  traitor  identify  Arnold  ?  Why  is  a  noun  thus  used  called  an 
adjective  element  ?  (Ans.  Because  it  performs  an  office  similar  to 
that  of  the  adjective  ;  it  describes  or  explains  a  noun.)  Give  Rule 
VI.  In  what  other  way  may  a  noun  be  modified  by  another  noun  ? 
Give  Rule  VH. 


LESSON    XXXIII. 

THE    PREDICATE    LIMITED    BY   THE    ADDITION    OP 
SINGLE    WORDS. 
See  Note  at  the  beginning  of  Lesson  XXXH. 

The  predicate,  when  taken  in  connection  with  the 
words  which  limit  it,  is  called  the  complex  or  logical 
predicate  ;  when  taken  apart  from  these  words,  is 
called  the  grammatical  predicate,  or  simply  the 
predicate;  as,  "Horses  run;99  "Horses  run 
swiftly." 

The  Objective  Element.  Any  word  or  group 
of  words  used  to  complete  the  meaning  of  a  transi- 
tive verb  or  its  participles,  and  answering  the  ques* 
tion,  What  ?  or  Whom  t  is  called  the  objective 
element ;  as,  George  desired  (what)  a  book,  —  a 
knife,  —  a  sled,  —  to  write,  —  to  play,  —  that  he 
might  see  his  friend. 


IN   GRAMMAR.  115 

The  object  becomes  the  subject  when  the  verb  assumes  the 
passive  form. 

The  noun  or  pronoun  used  as  the  object  has  the  same  modifica 
tions  of  number,  gender,  and  person,  as  the  subject. 

The  following  rule  should  be  applied  in  parsing  the  object :  — 

Rule  VIII.  A  noun  or  pronoun  used  as  the 
object  of  a  transitive  verb  or  its  participles,  must  bo 
in  the  objective  case ;  as,  "  We  paid  him." 

Note  1.  The  following  verbs  make,  appoint,  elect,  create,  consti- 
tute, render,  name,  style,  call,  esteem,  think,  consider,  regard,  reckon^ 
and  some  others,  not  only  take  after  them  a  direct  object,  but 
predicate  of  it  another  object ;  as,  "  They  called  his  name  John." 

Note  2.  As  these  verbs,  unlike  other  transitive  verbs,  perform 
the  additional  office  of  copula,  they  are  sometimes  called  copulative 
verbs.  This  latter  office  is  retained  when  they  are  changed  to  tiie 
passive  voice  ;  the  first  object  becomes  the  subject-nominative,  and 
the  second,  the  predicate-nominative ;  as,  His  name  was  called  John. 

Note  3.  The  following  verbs,  buy,  sell,  play,  sing,fnd,  get,  lendi 
draw,  send,  make,  pass,  write,  pour,  give,  teach,  leave,  bring,  tell,  do, 
present,  throw,  carry,  ask,  show,  order,  promise,  refuse,  deny,  provide* 
and  some  others,  take  after  them,  besides  a  direct  object,  an  indirect 
object,  showing  to  or  from  whom  the  action  tends  ;  as,  "  Give  me  a 
book." 

Note  4.  The  indirect  object  is  generally  said  to  be  governed  by 
a  preposition  understood  ;  the  preposition  is  always  expressed  when 
the  direct  object  is  placed  first ;  as,  Give  a  book  to  me. 

Note  5.  When  any  of  the  above  verbs  assume  the  passive  form, 
the  direct  object  generally,  (though  not  always,)  becomes  the  sub 
ject;  as,  "A  book  was  given  me."  The  indirect  object  some- 
times becomes  the  subject;  as,  "  He  was  asked  his  opinion;  M  "I 
was  taught  Grammar."  Opinion  and  Grammar  are  in  the  objec 
tive  case  after  a  passive  verb. 

Note  6.  Instead  of  a  single  word,  an  infinitive  or  substantive 
clause  may  become  one  of  the  objects  ;  as,  "I  told  him  to  go;" 
**  He  informed  me  that  the  boat  Jwd  sailed." 


116  FIRST  LESSONS 

Model  for  Analyzing  and  Parsing. 

Ccesar  defeated  Pompey. 

It  is  a  simple  sentence,  because  it  contains  but 

one  proposition. 

Casar is  the  subject. 

Defeated is  the  predicate. 

Defeated is  limited  by  "  Pompey,"   which    shows  whom 

Caesar  defeated,  and  is  an  objective  element. 
Defeated  Pompey  is  the  complex  predicate. 
Pompey is  a  proper  noun,  of  the  third  person,  singular 

number,  masculine  gender,  objective  case,  and  is 

the  object  of  "  defeated ; "  according  to  Rule  VIII. 

EXERCISE. 
Analyze  the  following  sentences,  and  parse  the  object :  — 
Brutus  killed   Csesar.     Heat   overcomes  me.     Did   the 
dog  pursue  a  fox  ?     The  lion  ate  a  sheep.     He  views  the 
stars.    We  built  a  house.     The  ink  soils  the  carpet.    Jose- 
phus  wrote   a  history.     Did  William  conquer  England  ? 
Alfred  defeated  the  Danes.     Bring  a  book.     Repeat  the 
lesson.    Might  he  have  been  leading  the  army  ? 
Write  subjects  and  objects  to  the  following  verbs :  — ■ 
Lead,  praise,  restrain,  know,  fear,  see,   love,  admonish, 
bring,   correct,  frighten,  pursue,  break,  torment,  perplex, 
annoy,  betray,  sing,  open,  displace,  equip,  defend,  punish, 
leave,  desire. 

Change  the  verbs  of  your  written  sentences  from  the  active 
to  the  passive  form. 

Model.  Abraham  led  Isaac.  Isaac  was  led  by  Abraham, 
The  Adverbial  Element.  Any  word  or  group 
of  words  used  to  limit  the  meaning  of  a  verb,  adjec- 
tive, or  adverb,  and  answering  the  questions,  Where  ? 
When  f  Why  t  or  How  f  is  called  an  adverbial 
element ,  as,  "  The  flower  blossomed  early" 


IN   GRAMMAR.  117 

Adverbs  are  divided  into  four  general  classes,  —  adverbs  of  place, 
adverbs  of  time,  adverbs  of  cause,  adverbs  of  manner.  They  are 
parsed  by  the  following  Rule :  — 

Rule  IX.  Adverbs  are  used  to  limit  verbs, 
prticiples,  adjectives,  and  other  adverbs. 

Note  1.  Two  negatives  occurring  in  the  same  sentence  render 
it  affirmative  ;  as,  "  Nor  did  they  not  perceive  their  evil  plight "  = 
"  They  did  perceive  their  evil  plight."  Two  negatives  are  often 
elegantly  used  to  express  an  affirmation,  one  being  the  prefix  of  a 
derivative  word  ;  as,  "  Nor  was.  he  wwsuccessful ; "  "  Mine  is  not  an 
sm  welcome  task." 

Note  2.  Adverbs  are  sometimes  used  to  limit  the  meaning  of 
a  preposition ;  as,  "  He  held  his  hand  exactly  over  the  place." 

Note  3.  Adverbs  sometimes  modify,  not  any  one  word,  but  a 
phrase  or  an  entire  sentence  ;  as,  u  We  were  absent  almost  a  year ; " 
"  Verily,  verily,  I  say  unto  you."       • 

Note  4.  Any  word,  phrase,  or  clause,  used  to  show  the  place, 
time,  cause,  or  manner,  of  an  action  is  of  the  nature  of  an  adverb. 

Models  for  Analyzing  and  Parsings 

Light  moves  rapidly. 
It  is  a  simple  sentence,  because  it  contains  but  on« 
proposition. 

Light is  the  subject,  because  it  is  that  of  which  the  action 

"moves  "  is  affirmed. 

Moves is  the  predicate,  because  it  is  the  action  affirmed  of 

light. 

Moves  rapidly  is  the  complex  predicate,  because  it  is  the  gram- 
matical predicate,  with  all  its  limitations. 

Moves  ....  is  limited  by  "rapidly,"  which  denotes  how  light 
moves,  and  is  ah  adverbial  element. 

Rapidly  ...  is  an  adverb  of  manner,  of  the  positive  degree,  (com 
pared,  rapidly,  more  rapidly,  most  rapidly,)  and  limits 
"  moves ; "  according  to  Rule  IX. :  "  Adverbs  limit, " 
&c. 

EXERCISE. 

Analyze  the  following  sentences,  and  parse  the  adverbs:  — 
Human   prudence  should  be  rightly  understood.    The 


118  FIRST   LESSONS 

stage  started  early.  Does  Mary  write  beautifully?  The 
wind  blows  fiercely.  We  easily  forget  our  own  misdeeds. 
We  cannot  view  the  sun  steadily.  One  can  easily  imagine 
himself  a  prince.  The  sun  shines  brightly.  The  water 
flows  yonder.  Perhaps  he  will  do  it.  He  cannot  (do  it. 
Write  carefully.  Study  attentively.  Why  do  you  talk  ? 
Where  are  the  books  ?  When  will  they  leave  ?  Who 
comes  there  ?  How  did  the  old  man  bring  it  ?  What 
have  you  now  found  ?  How  strange  it  is  !  Begone 
instantly  ! 

Write  fifteen  sentences,  and  limit  each  predicate  by  an 
adverb. 

Model  for  all  the  Elements  united. 

Constant  boasting  always  betrays  incapacity. 

It  is  a  simple  sentence,  because  it  con- 
tains but  one  proposition. 

Boasting is  the  subject.    (Why  ?) 

Betrays is  the  predicate.    (Why  ?) 

The  subject is  limited  by  "  constant,"  an  adjective 

element,  denoting  a  continued  habit. 
Constant  boasting  .  is  the  complex  subject.    (Why?) 

Betrays is  limited,  first,    by  "  incapacity,"  an 

*    objective  element,  denoting  what  is  be- 
trayed. 

Betrays is  further  modified  by  "  always,"  an  ad 

verbial  element,  denoting  time  absolute. 
Always  betrays  incapacity,  is  the  complex  predicate. 

Analyze  the  following  examples,  and  parse  each  word. 
Show  which  have  five  elements,  and  which  have  not. 

The  pupil  performed  the  task  correctly.  The  ambitious 
often  deceive  themselves.  The  slothful  seldom  respect 
themselves.  No  man  should  return  an  injury.  Idleness 
begets  poverty.     Animals  r^n.     Some  animals  run  swiftly 


IN   GEAMMAR.  119 

The  birds  devour  the  cherries  greedily.     Virtue  is  often 
neglected.     Socrates  the  philosopher  was  condemned. 

Write  Jive  sentences  containing  Jive  elements  ; — five,  con- 
taining  Jour  ;  — five,  containing  three  ;  —  and  five  other*, 
containing  only  two. 

What  is  the  complex  logical  predicate  ?  What  is  the  grammati 
cal  predicate  ?  What  is  the  objective  element  ?  What  questions 
does  it  answer  with  a  transitive  verb  ?  Give  the  Eule  for  the  oh 
ject.  What  is  an  adverbial  element  ?  What  may  it  answer  V 
Give  the  Eule  for  the  adverb. 


LESSON    XXXIV. 
INTERJECTIONS,   AND   THE   CASE   INDEPENDENT. 

There  are  certain  words  used  simply  to  express 
the  emotions  of  the  speaker,  which  do  not  form  any 
part  of  a  sentence  ;  as,  oh  !  alas  !  ah  !  such  words 
are  called  Interjections ,  because  they  are  thrown  in 
between  the  parts  of  a  sentence. 

Interjections  have  no  dependence  upon  other  words,  and  there 
fore  need  no  further  illustration. 

A  noun  or  pronoun  used  to  denote  the  person  or  thing  addressed, 
is  said  to  be  in  the  nominative  case  independent. 

The  interjection  and  the  nominative  case  independent  may  ho 
parsed  by  the  following  Eule :  — 

Rule  X.  The  nominative  case  independent, 
and  the  interjection,  have  no  grammatical  relation 
to  the  other  parts  of  the  sentence. 

Note  1.  A  noun  may  be  in  the  nominative  case  independent. 
(  1, )  by  direct  address ;  as,  "  Friends,  awake  ;  "  —  (  2, )  by  exclama 
tion  ;  as,  "  0  solitude  !  "  —  ( 3, )  by  pleonasm ;  as,  "  And  Harry's 
flesh,  it  fell  away." 


120  FIRST   LESSONS 

Note  2.  When  a  noun  is  used  absolutely  with  a  participle,  the 
two  are  equivalent  to  a  subordinate  clause,  and  are,  therefore, 
grammatically  related  to  the  principal  clause.  See  Note  2,  (1,) 
Rule  I. 

Model  for  Analysis  and  Parsing. 

Oh  !  father,  I  want  that  lily. 

I  .  .  .  is  the  subject.    (Why?) 

Want .  is  the  predicate.     (Why  ?) 

Want .  is  limited  by  "  that  lily,"  denoting  what  is  wanted. 

Oh  !  .  is  an  interjection,  having  no  dependence  upon  the  other 

parts  of  the  sentence  ;  according  to  Rule  X. 
Father  is  a  common  noun,  of  the  second  person,  singular  number, 
masculine    gender,    and    nominative    case    independent ; 
according  to  Rule  X. 

EXERCISE. 
Analyze  and  parse  the  following  sentences  :  — 
"  Oh  !  Speak."  «  His  reason,  alas  !  has  left  him."  "  Ah  ! 
pity  the  helpless."     "  Arise,  O  Lord ;  O  God,  lift  up  thine 
hand." 

Write  ten  sentences,  each  containing  a  nominative  case 
independent,  an  interjection,  or  loth.  Analyze  and  parse 
according  to  the  model. 

What  are  interjections  ?  What  does  the  nominative  case  inde 
pendent  denote  ?    Give  Rule  X. 


LESSON   XXXV. 

COMPLEX  AND  COMPOUND  ELEMENTS. 

It  has  been  seen  that  a  sentence  may  contain  five 
distinct  elements,  —  the  subject,  the  predicate,  the 
adjective  element,  the  objective  element,  and  ths 
adverbial  element. 


IN   GRAMMAR.      %  121 

The  first  two  are  called  principal  elements  be- 
cause no  sentence  can  be  formed  without  them. 

The  others  are  called  subordinate  elements, 
because  they  are  always  directly  or  indirectly 
dependent  on  the  other  two. 

Whenever  two  elements  are  united,  one  of  which 
is  subordinate  to  the  other,  and  limits  its  meaning, 
the  two  united  form  a  complex  element. 

Thus,  "  Animals  run  "  contains  only  the  two  principal  elements  ; 
but  in  the  sentence,  "  Large  animals  run,"  the  subordinate  element 
11  large  "  renders  the  subject  complex.  So,  in  the  sentence,  u  Large 
run  slowly,"  both  the  subject  and  predicate  are  complex.  In  the 
same  manner,  each  subordinate  element  may  become  complex. 

Whenever  two  elements  are  united,  which  in  no 
way  limit  each  other,  they  form  a  compound  ele- 
ment ;  as  "  John  and  Jptmes  attended  school." 

Either  of  the  five  elements  of  a  sentence,  may 
become  complex,  compound,  or  both  ;  as,  "  Sarah 
writes  neatly  ;"  "  Sarah  writes  and  paints  ;  " 
w  Sarah  writes  neatly and  paints  correctly" 

The  parts  of  a  compound  element  are  said  to  be 
coordinate,  because  they  hold  the  same  rank  ;  that 
part  of  a  complex  element  which  limits  the  other 
and  depends  upon  it,  is  said  to  be  subordinate  to 
it,  because  it  takes  an  inferior  rank  in  the  sen- 
tence. 

The  parts  of  a  compound  element  or  a  compound  sentence  are 
said  to  be  similar,  since  they  have  the  same  rank ;  the  parts  of  a 
complex  element,  or  a  complex  sentence,  are  saM  to  be  dissimilar, 
since  they  do  net  have  the  same  rank; 

11 


122  FIRST   LESSORS 

The  parts  of  a  compound  element  are  joined  to 
each  other  by  a  connective  ;  as,  "  He  labored 
faithfully  and  successfully." 

The  parts  of  a  complex  element  are  joined  to  each 
other  sometimes  with,  and  sometimes  without  a  con- 
nective ;  as,  "  He  purchased  a  valuable  farm  ;  " 
"  He  purchased  a  farm  which  was  valuable." 

Those  connectives  which  unite  the  parts  of  a 
compound  element  are  called  coordinate;  those 
which  unite  the  parts  of  a  complex  element  are 
called  subordinate. 

Coordinate  connectives  are  always  conjunctions,  and  are  parsed 
by  the  following  Rule  :  — 

Rule  XI.  Coordinate  conjunctions  are  used  to 
connect  similar  elements. 

Note  1.  These  conjunctions  are  called  coordinate,  because  the 
words,  phrases,  or  clauses  which  they  connect  are  coordinate. 

Note  2.  When  the  coordinate  parts  exceed  two,  the  conjunc- 
tion is  usually  placed  between  the  last  two  only;  as,  "  The  flood 
swept  away  trees,  fences,  houses,  and  barns." 

Models  for  Analyzing  and  Parsing  Compound 
Elements. 

Socrates  and  Plato  were  distinguished  philosophers. 

It  is  a  sentence  having  a  compound  subject.* 
Socrates  and  Plato  form  the  compound  subject,  because  they  are 
united  by  "  and,"  and  have  a  common  predi- 
cate, "  were  philosophers." 

*  A  sentence  having  but  one  of  its  elements  compound,  is  not  properly  a 
Simple  sentence,  nor  is  it  strictly  a  compound  sentence.  It  may,  not  im- 
properly, be  called  a  partial  compound,  since  one  of  its  parts  is  compound. 
All  such  sentences  may  be  converted  into  complete  compounds. 


IN   GRAMMAR.  123 

The  subject  .  is  not  limited. 

The  predicate  is  limited  by  "  distinguished,"  an  adjective  element 

of  the  first  class,  used  to  describe  "  philosophers." 
And is  a  coordinate  conjunction,  and  connects  the  two 

simple  subjects ;  according  to  Rule  XI. 

You  may  buy  books  or  slates. 

It  is  a  sentence  having  a  compound  objective  ele- 
ment. 

You is  the  subject. 

May  buy ...  is  the  predicate. 

You is  not  limited. 

May  buy  ...  is  limited  by  "  books  or  slates,"  a  compound  objec 
tive  element,  of  the  first  class,  showing  what  may  be 
bought. 

Or is  a  coordinate  conjunction,  (alternative,)  showing 

that  a    choice  is  offered   between  "  books "  and 
il  slates,"  which  are  connected  by  it ;  according  to 
Rule  XI. 
Note.    With  the  materials  already  explained,  a  sentence  may 

be  considerably  extended.     Let  the  pupil  attend  carefully  to  the 

following 

EXERCISE. 

Analyze  the  following  sentences,  and  point  out  the  complex 
elements :  — 

His  oldest  brother's  son  was  sick.  Alfred  the  Great  sub- 
dued the  Danish  king.  Peter  the. hermit  preached  the  first 
crusade.  William  the  Conqueror  defeated  Harold,  the 
Saxon  king.  Excess  produces  premature  old  age.  Touch 
it  very  lightly.  Avarice  often  produces  contrary  effects. 
Interest  speaks  all  languages.  It  acts  all  parts.  Guard  well 
your  own  heart.  The  shade  protected  the  weary  pilgrim. 
Labor  disgraces  no  man.  Joseph,  Jacob's  favorite  son,  waa 
sold.    Moses  received  the  ten  commandments. 

Write  ten  sentences  of  your  own,  making  either  elemerti 
complex. 


124  FIRST   LESSONS 

Study  Lesson  XXIV.,  and  then  analyze  the  following 
sentences ■,  parse  the  conjunctions  and  the  verbs,  and  point  out 
the  compound  elements:  — 

The  sun  and  moon  stood  still.  Abraham,  Isaac,  and 
Jacob,  were  Jewish  patriarchs.  Exercise  ferments  the 
humors,  throws  off  redundancies,  and  assists  nature.  The 
plain  and  simple  style  recommends  and  heightens  the  sub- 
lime. Education  expands  and  elevates  the  mind.  Religion 
refines  and  purifies  the  affections.  Many  very  worthy  and 
sensible  people  have  certain  odd  tricks. 

As  a  compound  element  may  have  a  verb  or  pronoun  agreeing 
with  it,  the  following  rule  should  be  observed :  — 

Rule  XII.  When  a  verb  or  pronoun  relates  to 
two  or  more  nouns  connected  by  a  coordinate  con- 
junction,— 

(1.)  If  it  agrees  with  them  taken  conjointly,  it 
must  be  in  the  plural  number  ; — 

(2.)  But,  if  it  agrees  with  them  taken  sepa- 
rately, it  must  be  of  the  same  number  as  that  which 
stands  next  to  it ;  —    * 

(3.)  If  it  agrees  with. one,  and  not  the  other, 
it  must  be  of  the  same  number  as  that  with  which 
it  agrees. 

EXAMPLES. 

1.     Charles  and  his  sister  were  absent. 
'  Charles  or  liis  sister  was  absent. 
Neither  Charles  nor  his  sister  was  absent. 
Charles  or  his  sisters  were  absent. 
Either  his  sisters  or  Charles  himself  was  absent, 

Not  Charles,  but  his  sister  was  absent. 
Charles,  and  not  his  sister,  was  absent. 
Charles,  as  well  as  his  sister,  was  absent. 
Not  Charles,  but  his  sisters  were  absent. 
k  Charles,  and  not  his  sisters,  was  absent. 


IN   GRAMMAR.  125 

EXERCISE. 
Write  predicates  to  the  following  compound  subjects :  — 

Washington  and  Lafayette ;  sun  and  moon ;  my  brother 
and  I ;  Samuel  or  Peter ;  silver  or  gold ;  neither  one  nor 
the  other;  not  Adam,  but  Eve;  snow,  as  well  as  rain; 
William,  or  his  sons ;  Cain,  and  not  Abel ;  Jacob,  or  his  * 
children  ;  the  members,  or  the  president;  not  the  children, 
but  the  father ;  George,  and  Joseph  also ;  every  man  and 
woman ;  each  boy  and  girl. 

Model.  Washington  and  Lafayette  were  distinguished 
generals. 

Write  compound  predicates  to  the  following  subjects :  — 

Promises,  murderer,  emperor,  picture,  Bible,  boys,  chil- 
dren, grammar,  Arnold,  Cicero,  Mahomet,  coal,  religion, 
virtue,  diligence,  behavior,  kindness. 

Model.    Promises  are  often  made  and  broken. 

Write  fifteen  sentences  of  your  own,  limiting  the  subjects 
of  the  first  five  by  a  compound  adjective  element,  —  the 
predicates  of  the  next  five  by  a  compound  objective  ele- 
ment, —  and  the  ptedicates  of  the  last  five  by  a  compound 
adverbial  element. 

Models.  A  large  and  beautiful  horse  was  killed.  The 
flood  swept  away  trees,  fences,  houses,  and  barns.  Some 
men  sin  frequently,  deliberately,  and  presumptuously. 

Write  ten  sentences,  making  any  two  elements  in  each 
compound. 

Model.  George  and  David  study  grammar  and  arith- 
metic. 

Analyze  and  parse  the  following  miscellaneous  examples : — 

We  have  learned  our  lessons.  Joseph  was  sold.  You 
might  have  crossed  the  stream.  He  will  sell  some  figs. 
She  should  have  been  studying  her  lesson.  The  earl  is 
our  guest.  Be  sober.  Live  contentedly.  Break  not  your 
promise.     Be  thou  a  scholar.     Be  firm.     Do  be  quiet 

11* 


126  FIRST   LESSONS 

The  soldiers  must  have  been  drilled.  The  ship  ploughs 
the  sea.  The  emperor  Antoninus  wrote  an  excellent  book. 
Edward  the  Confessor  abused  his  mother.  Queen  Chris- 
tina resigned  her  crown.  Edward  the  Black  Prince  woro 
black  armor.  I  am,  dear  sir,  your  affectionate  friend, 
My  son,  give  me  thy  heart.  The  earth  and  the  moon  are 
planets.  The  creation  demonstrates  God's  power  and 
wisdom.  Anarchy  and  confusion,  poverty  and  distress, 
follow  a  civil  war.     Avoid  arrogance  and  servility. 

The  verdant  lawn,  the  shady  grove,  the  variegated 
landscape,  the  boundless  ocean,  and  the  starry  firmament, 
are  beautiful  and  magnificent  objects.  True  religion  gives 
our  behavior  a  native  and  unaffected  ease.  Plain,  honest 
truth  wants  no  artificial  coloring.  Wise  and  good  men  are 
frequently  unsuccessful.  True  worth  is  modest  and  retir- 
ing. Ulysses  was  a  wise,  eloquent,  cautious  and  intrepid 
hero.  Good  nature  mends  and  beautifies  all  objects.  The 
liberal  arts  soften  and  harmonize  the  temper.  A  philoso- 
pher should  examine  every  thing  coolly,  impartially,  accu- 
rately, and  rationally.  I  shall  go  myself;  or  send  some  one. 
He  is  not  sick,  but  discouraged.  She  sings,  as  well  as  plays. 
He  has  caught  a  pike  or  a  perch.  O,  how  cold  it  is  !  His 
fate,  alas!  was  deplorable.  Coming  events  cast  their 
shadows  before. 

How  many  elements  may  a  sentence  contain  ?  Which  are  prin 
cipal  ?  Which  subordinate  ?  How  is  a  complex  element  formed  ? 
How  is  a  compound  element  formed  ?  Wkat  elements  may  be 
complex  or  compound  ?  How  are  the  parts  of  a  compound  ele- 
ment joined  ?  How  are  the  parts  of  a  complex  element  joined  " 
What  are  coordinate  connectives  ?    Give  the  rule  for  their  usa. 


IN   GRAMMAR.  127 


LESSON  XXXYI. 

THE   SUBJECT  MODIFIED   BY  THE   ADDITION 
OF   PHRASES. 

Note.  In  the  previous  additions  to  the  subject  or  predicate,  a 
tingle  word  is  made  to  show  what  hind,  how  many,  whose,  what,  whom, 
where,  when,  why,  how,  &c.  But  in  this  and  the  succeeding  lesson  a 
class  of  additions  is  considered,  in  which  an  infinitive,  or  a  prepo- 
sition and  its  object,  show  what  kind,  &c.  These  additions  are 
called  phrases.  They  perform  the  same  office  as,  and  may  often  be 
changed  to  single  words ;  as,  "  A  man  of  industry  will  prosper  "  = 
*  "  An  industrious  man  will  prosper."  These  phrases,  called  ele- 
ments of  the  second  class,  may  be  used  as  substantives,  adjectives,  or 
adverbs. 

The  preposition  is  a  connective  used  to  join  a 
noun  or  pronoun  to  the  word  or  phrase  on  which  it 
depends.  The  noun  or  pronoun  is  called  the  object 
of  the  preposition. 

The  use  of  the  preposition  may  be  expressed  by  the  following 
rule :  —  t 

Rule  XIII.  A  preposition  is  used  to  show  the 
relation  of  its  object  to  the  preceding  word  on  which 
the  object  depends ;  as,  "  George  went  into  the 
garden." 

The  following  is  the  rule  for  the  object :  — 

Rule  XIV.  A  noun  or  pronoun  used  to  com- 
plete the  relation  of  a  preposition,  must  be  in  the 
objective  case  ;   as,  "  They  gathered  around  him" 

*In  the  subsequent  parts  of  this  work,  it  will  often  be  necessary  to 
represent  equivalent  expressions.  For  this  purpose  the  sign  of  equality 
(•=)  will  be  used. 


128  FIRST  LESSONS 

Note  1.  The  object  of  the  preposition  may  be  either  a  word, 
phrase,  or  clause;  as,  "  He  came  in  haste ; "  "  This  is  a  book  for 
you  to  read ;  "  "  Much  depends  npon  who  the  commissioners  are." 

Note  2.  The  objective  is  used  without  a  preposition,  after  like, 
nigh,  near,  and  worth. 

Note  3.  Before  nouns  denoting  time,  measure,  distance,  and 
direction,  the  preposition  is  usually  understood ;  as,  "  We  were  ab- 
sent five  years  ;  "  "  The  wall  was  a  foot  thick." 

The   infinitive   is  a  peculiar  form,  participating 
the  properties  of  a  noun  and  verb. 

When  used  to  modify  other  words,  it  should  be  parsed  by  the 
following  rule :  — 

Eulb  XV.  The  infinitive  depends  upon  the 
word  which  it  limits;  as,  "  We  went  to  see  you." 

Note  1.  The  to  of  the  infinitive  is  omitted  after  the  active  voice 
of  bid,  dare,  let,  make,  hear,  need,  feel,  see;  as,  "I  heard  him  say 
it." 

Note  2.  This  rule  applies  to  the  infinitive  only  when  it  is  a 
subordinate  element ;  when  it  is  a  principal  element,  apply  either 
Rule  I.  or  Kule  II. 

Note  3.    The  infinitive  is  often  used  after  so,  as,  too,  and  than. 

Of  is  the  principal  preposition  used  in  the  adjec- 
tive phrase. 

Other  prepositions  are  sometimes  used ;   as,  at,  in,  on,  &c. 

Models  for  Analyzing  and  Parsing. 
Note.  The  pupil  should  bear  in  mind  that,  instead  of  a  single 
adjective,  as  in  Lesson  XXXIII.,  a  phrase,  consisting  of  an  infini- 
tive, or  a  preposition  and  its  object  is  here  used  to  limit  the  subject ; 
as,  "  The  dew  of  the  morning  has  passed  away."  It  is  culled  the 
adjective  phrase  or  adjective  element  of  the  second  class. 

The  brother  of  Richard  I.  usurped  the  throne. 

It  is  a  simple  sentence,  because  it  contains 

but  one  proposition. 

Brother is  the*  subject. 

Usurped is  the  predicate. 


IN   GRAMMAR.  129 

The  subject,  brother \  is  limited  by  the  phrase  M  of  Richard  "  an 
adjective  element  of  the  second  class,  de- 
noting the  family  relation  of  "brother,"  and 
u  Richard ; "  it  is  equivalent  to  "  Richard'r ." 
"Of"  is  the  connective,  and  "Richard"  is 
the  object. 

Of  ...  • is  a  preposition,  and  shows  the  relation  of 

"  Richard  "  to  "  brother ; "  according  to  Rule 

xm. 

Richard is  a  proper  noun,  of  the  third  person,  singular 

number,  masculine  gender,  objective  ca.se 
and  completes  the  relation  of  the  preposition 
"  of ; "  according  to  Rule  XIV. 

His  attempt  to  rescue  Ms  friend  was  fatal  to  himself. 
Note.    Analyze  as  in  the  last  example. 

Attempt,  the  subject,  is  limited  by  "to  rescue,"  an  adjective  els 
ment  of  the  second  class,  used  to  designate 
the  attempt. 

To  rescue is  a  verb,  (from  rescue,  rescued,  rescued,)  in 

the  infinitive  mode,  present  tense,  and  de- 
pends upon  "attempts;"  according  to  Rule 
XV. 

EXERCISE. 

Study  Lesson  XXIII.,  and  then  analyze  the  following 
examples,  and  parse  the  phrases :  — 

A  man  of  straw  was  prostrated.  The  dew  of  the  morn- 
ing has  passed  away.  The  light  of  the  moon  assisted  us. 
The  king  of  Morven  struck  his  breast.  The  temple  of 
Solomon  was  destroyed.  Time  to  come  is  called  future. 
A  desire  to  see  you  has  brought  me  here.  The  spirit  of 
Loda  shrieked.  The  joy  of  his  youth  was  great.  1*1  le 
city  of  Mexico  is  beautifully  situated.  The  hope  of  tha 
hypocrite  will  fail.  The  man  at  the  mast-head  descried  an 
iceberg.  His  intention  to  resign  has  been  publicly  announced 
The  true  spirit  of  heroism  is  generous. 
I 


130  FIRST   LESSONS 

Write  sentences  limiting  the  subjects  by  the  following 
phrases:  — 

Of  morning;  in  the  moon;  of  brass;  of  generosity; 
of  America ;  of  virtue ;  of  seeing ;  of  doing ;  of  wood ; 
of  Europe ;  on  board ;  of  the  house ;  of  friends ;  of  home. 

Model.  The  dawn  of  morning  found  Waverly  on  the 
esplanade. 

Change  any  twelve  of  the  adjective  elements  in  the  preceding 
examples  into  equivalent  forms  of  the  first  class. 

Model*    The  morning  dew  has  passed  away. 

Write  sentences  of  your  own,  limiting  the  subjects  by  the 
following  adjective  elements  ;  then  change  them  to  the  second 
class. 

Evening,  virtuous,  David's,  Solomon's,  generous,  honor- 
able, penniless,  comfortless,  coming,  breathless,  prosperous, 
experienced,  deformed,  wise,  country,  morning. 

Model.  An  evening  walk  is  agreeable  =  A  walk  at 
evening  is  agreeable. 

What  forms  may  be  used  instead  of  an  adjective,  to  limit  the 
subject?  How  is  the  preposition  used?  What  is  the  noun  or 
pronoun  which  follows  it  called?  Give  Rule  XIII.  Give  Rule 
XIV.    What  is  said  of  the  infinitive  ?    Give  Rule  XV. 


1 


LESSON   XXXVII. 

THE  PREDICATE   MODIFIED   BY  THE  ADDITION   OF 

PHRASES. 
See  Note  at  the  beginning  of  Lesson  XXXVI. 

Objective  Element.  Instead  of  a  single  word, 
as  in  Lesson  XXXIII.,  an  infinitive  may  complete 
the  meaning  of  a  transitive  verb ;  as,  "  He  desired 
(what)  to  write,  to  sing,  to  play  "  &c. 


IN   GRAMMAR.  181 

The  infinitive  is  used  to  complete  the  meaning  of  verbs  which 
do  not  take  a  substantive  as  an  object ;  as,  "  He  seemed  to  revive.1* 
In  parsing  the  infinitive  thus  used,  apply  either  Rule  XV.  or  Rufe 
VIII.    Take  the  model  in  Lesson  XXxIII.  for  analyzing. 

EXERCISE. 

Analyze  the  following  examples,  and  parse  the  infini- 
tives :  — 

They  began  to  sing.  The  boy  learned  to  write.  I  did 
not  expect  to  find  it.  The  children  love  to  play.  We  hope 
to  see  him.     The  ambassador  desired  to  have  an  interview. 

He  seemed  to  sleep.  We  ought  to  know.  The  sun  ap- 
pears to  rise.  The  boy  was  anxious  to  learn.  The  student 
was  ambitious  to  rise. 

Write  infinitives  as  objects  to  complete  the  meaning  of  the 
following  predicates :  — 

We  wish.  They  know  how.  James  cannot  learn.  We 
did  not  intend.  They  will  try.  The  boys  hope.  May  we 
not  expect  ? 

Adverbial  Element.  Phrases,  like  adverbs,  may 
denote  place,  time,  cause,  and  manner. 

Model  for  Analyzing  and  Parsing. 

We  left  on  Tuesday. 

It   is  a  simple   sentence  because  it  contains  bat  one 

proposition. 
We  .  .  .  is  the  subject,  and 
Left ...  is  the  predicate. 
We  .  .  .  is  not  limited. 
Left    .  .  is  limited  by  the  phrase  "  on  Tuesday,"  which  denotes 

the  time  of  leaving,  and  is  an  adverbial  element. 
On  ...  is  a  preposition,  and  shows  the  relation  of  "  Tuesday"  to 

"  leave ; "  according  to  Rule  XIII. 
Tuesday  is  a  noun,  &c,  and  completes  the  relation  of  "on;n 

according  to  Rule  XIV. 


132  FIRST   LESSONS 

Place.  Phrases  denoting  place,  answer  tho 
questions,  WJdther?   Whence?   Where? 

Examples.  "The  water  runs  (whither?)  to  the  ocean."  The 
wind  conies  (whence  ?)  from  the  South."  "  The  snow  is  rneltirg 
I  where  ?)  in  the  valley." 

EXERCISE. 

Analyze  the  following,  and  parse  the  phrases:  — 

The  kangaroo  lives  in  New  Holland.  Burgoyne  sur- 
rendered at  Saratoga.  A  treaty  of  peace  was  concluded 
at  Marseilles.  Napoleon  was  banished  to  St.  Helena. 
The  battle  was  fought  at  Vittoria.  The  church  stands 
beside  the  river.  Mesopotamia  was  situated  between  two 
rivers.  The  nuncio  came  from  Rome.  The  Israelites 
came  out  of  Egypt.  They  went  to,  Canaan.  We  sat  on 
the  sofa.  The  birds  flew  over  the  barn.  The  rabbits 
burrowed  under  the  tree.     We  sailed   around  the  island. 

Write  sentences  of  your  own,  limiting  the  predicates  by  the 
following  phrases :  — 

Over  the  hill ;  on  the  ground ;  up  the  tree ;  to  New 
York ;  from  Philadelphia ;  through  the  air ;  on  the  steps ; 
toward  the  east ;  beside  the  wall ;  around  the  garden ;  by 
Long  Island ;  along  the  road ;  athwart  the  sky. 

Model.     The  horse  ran  over  the  hill. 

Time.  Phrases  denoting  time  answer  the  ques- 
tions, When?    Sow  long?    How  often? 

Examples.  "The  boat  will  sail  (when?)  on  Monday."  'It 
will  be  absent  (how  long  ?)  four  days."  "  The  task  was  performed 
(how  often)  four  times."  In  the  last  two  examples  tne  preposition 
is  understood. 

EXERCISE. 
Analyze  the  following,  and  parse  the  phrases :  — 
The  steamer  left  on   Friday.     The  cars  will   arrive  at 
twelve,      Some  birds  remain  throughout  the  year.     My 


IN   GRAMMAR.  133 

cousin  staid  a  week.  The  work  must  be  completed  before 
Saturday.  The  stage  will  arrive  towards  morning.  The 
president  staid  till  Monday.  The  boat  left  after  twelve.  1 
have  been  here  since  sunrise.  The  boat  was  repaired  six 
times. 

Write  ten  sentences,  each  containing  some  phrase  denoting 
time. 

Select  fifteen  sentences  from  your  reading  lesson,  each 
having  a  phrase  denoting  time. 

Cause  or  Reason.  Phrases  denoting  a  cause  or 
reason,  answer  the  questions,  Why?  For  what? 
as,  "  He  was  imprisoned  (why  ?)  for  debt" 

The  infinitive  often  answers  the  question  Wliy  f  It  then  denotes 
a  motive ;  as,  "  They  went  to  see." 

EXERCISE. 
The  poor  man  died  of  hunger.  The  woman  fainted  from 
fright.  The  farmer  was  imprisoned  for  debt.  The  soldier 
fights  for  glory.  The  party  were  travelling  for  pleasure. 
The  victim  seemed,  by  his  dress,  to  be  a  sailor.  The  chil- 
dren went  to  see  the  animals.  They  remained  to  visit  their 
friends.  Washington  sent  an  officer  to  reconnoitre  the 
enemy's  camp.    We  stopped  to  see  the  consul. 

Manner.  Phrases  denoting  manner,  answer  the 
questions,  How  f  or,  How  much? 

EXERCISE. 
Analyze  the  following,  and  parse  the  phrases :  — 
The  anchor  clung  to  the  rock  with  tenacity.  The  ele- 
phant takes  his  food  with  his  trunk.  The  dove  flew  with 
rapidity.  The  Greeks  took  Troy  by  stratagem.  The 
coachman  rode  by  in  haste.  They  have  rushed  through 
like  a  hurricane.    Th^y  devoured  the  earth  like  an  army  of 

12 


134  FIRST   LESSONS 

locusts.  The  Georgium  Sidus  was  discovered  by  HerscheL 
Lightning  and  electricity  were  identified  by  Franklin. 
The  man  was  culpable  to  a  great  degree.  Jame3  walked 
with  his  sister.  Columbus  crossed  the  Atlantic  with  ninety 
men.  The  walls  of  Babylon  were  fifteen  miles  long.  The 
jacket  is  too  large  for  the  boy.  The  water  is  too  cold  for 
bathing.     The  coat  is  two  gay  for  an  old  man. 

Write  sentences  limiting  the  predicates  by  the  following 
phrases  denoting  agency.  Then  change  the  verb  to  the  active 
voice :  — 

By  Columbus;  by  Moses;  by  whales;  by  doves;  by 
Washington ;  by  Cromwell ;  by  Socrates ;  by  Judas ;  by 
Arnold ;  by  Paul ;  by  rabbits ;  by  insects  ;  by  serpents ;  by 
bees ;  by  labor. 

Model.  America  was  discovered  by  Columbus  =  Co- 
lumbus discovered  America. 

Write  sentences  limiting  the  predicates  by  the  following 
miscellaneous  phrases :  — 

In  haste;  for  a  boy;  with  rapidity;  like  thunder;  ten 
miles ;  six  feet ;  seven  rods ;  for  me  to  do ;  with  William ; 
with  a  sword. 

Change  the  following  adverbs  into  phrases,  and  employ 
them  in  sentences  of  your  own :  — 

Carefully,  wisely,  courageously,  unblushingly,   tenderly, 
diligently,  harmlessly,  furiously,  despondingly,  thoughtfully, 
incautiously,   rapidly,    boldly,   timidly,  foolishly,    brightly^ 
modestly,  painfully,  elegantly. 
Model.    He  managed  with  care. 

What  may  be  used,  instead  of  a  single  word,  as  the  objec- 
tive element  ?  What  forms  may  be  used  as  the  adverbial 
element  ?  By  what  questions  may  we  know  a  phrase  denot, 
ing  place  ?     Time  ?     Cause  or  reason  ?     Manner  ? 


IN   GRAMMAR.  135 


LESSON    XXXVIII. 
COMPLEX  AND   COMPOUND   PHRASES. 

A  phrase,  used  as  an  element  of  a  sentence  may, 
as  in  case  of  the  single  word,  become  complex  or 
compound. 

The  phrase,  in  any  of  its  uses,  may  be  complex,  (1,)  by  adding  a 
single  word  to  the  object ;  as,  "  The  appearance  of  dark  clouds 
alarmed  us;  "  —  (2,)  by  adding  another  phrase  to  the  object;  as, 
"  The  king  returned  in  the  gleam  of  his  arms." 

Two  phrases,  like  two  single  words,  may  be  united  by  either  of 
the  coordinate  conjunctions ;  as,  "  The  islands  of  Cuba  and  [of] 
Hayti  belong  to  the  West  Indies."  "  The  boy  learned  to  read  and 
[to]  write."  "  You  may  pass  through  the  house  and  through  the 
garden.* 

Model  for  Analyzing  complex  Elements. 

The  whole  course  of  his  life  has  been  distinguished  by 

generous  actions. 

It  is  a  simple  sentence,  because  it  contains 
but  one  proposition. 

Course is  the  subject,  and 

Has  been  distinguished  is  the  predicate. 

The  subject,  course,  .  is  limited  by  "  the  "  and  "  whole."  It  is 
also  limited  by  the  phrase  "of  his  life,"  a 
complex  adjective  element,  used  to  explain 
the  "  course."  "  Life  "  is  limited  by  "  his," 
which  denotes  whose  life. 

The  predicate,  has  been  distinguished,  is  limited  by  the  phrase  "  by 
generous  actions  "  —  showing  how  the  course 
of  his  life  had  been  distinguished,  and  is  a 
complex  adverbial  element.  "Actions"  is 
limited  by  "generous,"  showing  what  kind 
of  actions. 

*  The  preposition  is  g°nerally  omitted  by  ellipsis  in  the  second  phrase. 


130  nr.sT  lessons 

Note.  A  phrase  may  be  joined  to  a  single  word  used  in  any 
relation.  Thus,  "  He  gave  a  word  of  caution."  The  phrase  "  of 
caution"  renders  the  object  word  complex. 

EXERCISE. 

Analyze  the  following  sentences,  and  separate  each  complex 
clement  into  its  component  parts,  according  to  the  model :  — 

The  Spartan  youth  were  accustomed  to  go  barefoot. 
Many  a  despicable  wretch  lies  under  a  marble  monument, 
decorated  with  a  flattering  epitaph.  Italy  is  a  large  penin- 
sula, bounded  on  the  north  by  the  Alps.  The  king  returned 
in  the  gleam  of  his  arms.  The  chiefs  gathered  round  the 
falling  Carthon.  His  words  reached  the  heart  of  Clessam- 
mor.  After  the  denial  of  the  charge,  he  withdrew  in  dignified 
displeasure.  The  prayers  of  David,  the  son  of  Jesse,  are 
ended.  Suddenly  the  sound  of  the  signal-gun  broke  the 
stillness  of  the  night.     The  same  is  true  of  literary  men. 

Write  sentences,  limiting  the  subject  of  each  by  one  of  the 
following  adjectives  or  participles.  Let  each  adjective  or 
participle  be  placed  at  the  beginning  of  the  sentence,  and  be 
limited  by  some  word  or  phrase. 

Gliding,  eager,  feeding,  anxious,  desirous,  floating,  con- 
scious, encircled,  enriched,  regardless,  flying,  searching, 
waiting,  opening,  commencing,  wading,  poring,  finding, 
aware,  awake,  ambitious,  robed,  detained,  amazed,  indig- 
nant, confused. 

Model.  Gliding  along  the  edge  of  the  horizon,  a  dis- 
tant sail  sometimes  attracted  our  attention.  Eager  to  attain 
to  the  highest  rank,  he  labored  incessantly. 

Write  sentences  introducing  each  of  the  following  nouns  or 
infinitives  as  objects,  and  let  each  be  limited  by  some  word  or 
phrase  : — 

Laws,  congress,  constitution,  county,  work,  discourse,  fable 
dialogue,  catalogue,  inventory,  league,  truce,  country,  laboi 


IN   GRAMMAR.  137 

to  study ;  to  invite ;  to  leave ;  to  stay ;  to  sing  •,   to  have 
run. 

Model.     The  Eomans  examined  the  laws  of  Solon. 

Use  the  following  phrases  as  adverbial  elements,  and  limit 
each  by  some  word  or  phrase:  — 

In  honor;  on  returning;  by  searching*  in  the  capital; 
through  the  air;  on  opening;  to  solicit;  to  invite;  over 
hjjfs ;  under  the  wall ;  in  search ;  into  the  town ;  for  stealing ; 
of  his  breaking ;  of  her  being  sick ;  of  his  being  a  scholar. 

Model.  One  hundred  guns  were  fired  in  honor  of  the 
victory  gained  by  the  Americans  over  the  British. 

Analyze  the  following  sentences  and  point  out  the  com- 
pound phrases,  showing  also  what  words  are  omitted  by 
ellipsis :  — 

A  stream  of  flame  and  smoke  issued  from  the  chimney. 
The  hearts  of  the  brothers  were  not  divided  during  the 
peace  and  the  troubles  of  this  life.  The  obligation  of  re- 
spect and  love  for  parents  never  ceases.  Hampden  placed 
himself  at  the  head  of  his  countrymen,  and  across  the  path 
of  tyranny.  To  be  or  not  to  be,  is  the  question.  Sarah 
loves  to  sing  and  dance.  They  were  stationed  there  to 
defend  the  fort,  and  to  awe  the  citizens. 

Write  sentences,  introducing  the  following  words  as 
objects  after  a  preposition,  and  let  the  phrases  thus  formed 
of  the  words  between  the  semicolons,  be  united  into  compound 
adjective  or  adverbial  elements. 

Robber,  murderer ;  truth,  humanity ;  zeal,  energy ;  Eng- 
hnd,  America;  Europe,  Asia;  hope,  fear;  day,  night. 

Model.  The  name  of  the  robber  and  murderer  has  been 
ascertained. 

May  phrases  become  complex  and  compound?  In  what  way 
may  a  phrase  become  complex  ?    In  what  way  comnound  ? 

12* 


138  FIRST   LESSONS 

LESSON    XXXIX. 

CLASSES   OF   INTERROGATIVE  SENTENCES. 

Interrogative  sentences  are  of  two  kinds, — 
direct  and  indirect. 

A  direct  interrogative  sentence  refers  to  the  whole 
of  the  sentence  which  answers  the  question,  andcs 
always  introduced  by  a  verb  of  its  auxiliaries ;  as, 
"Did you  see  John?"   Yes,  i.  e.,  "I  did  see  John." 

'    Note.    Direct  interrogative  sentences  are  answered  by  yes  or 
no,  which  are  equivalent  to  a  whole  sentence. 

An  indirect  interrogative  sentence  refers  to  some 
part  of  the  sentence  which  answers  the  question 
and  is  always  introduced  by  some  interrogative 
word ;  as,  "  Who  came  ?  "  Ans.  John,  i.  e.,  "  John 
came." 

The  interrogatives  are,  —  (1,)  pronouns;  as,  Who  ?  Which? 
and  What  ?  (2,)  pronominal  adjectives  ;  as,  Which  ?  What  ? 
and  Many  preceded  by  How,  How  many  ?  —  and  (3,)  adverbs, 
(either words  or  phrases  ;)  as,  (place,)  Wliere?  Whither?  Whence? 
(time,)  When  ?  Row  long  ?  How  often  ?  (cause,)  Why  ?  Wherefore  ? 
(manner,)  How  f  How  much  ?  Also,  At  what  place  ?  On  what  day  ? 
For  what  reason  ?  In  what  manner  ?  &c,  &c. 

Models  for  Analysis. 

Have  you  written  ? 

It  is  an  interrogative  sentence,  because  it  asks  a  ques 
tion  ;  simple,  because  it  contains  but  one  proposition; 
direct,  because  it  requires  an  affirmation  or  denial. 

You is  the  subjec*.. 

Have  written  is  the  predicate. 
Note.    The  elements  of  an   interrogative  sentence  are  in  all 

respects  like  those  of  a  declarative.  i 


IN    GRAMMAR.  139 

Where  does  he  live  f    Ans.  In  Boston. 

It  is  an  interrogative  sentence,  because  it  asks  a 
question  ;  simple,  because  it  contains  but  one  propo- 
sition ;  indirect,  because  it  refers  to  a  part  of  a 
corresponding  declarative  sentence,  "  in  Boston." 

Be is  the  subject. 

Does  hve  ...  is  the  predicate. 

The  predicate  is  limited   by    "  where,"    an    adverbial   element, 
inquiring  for  place. 

Where is  an  interrogative  adverb,  and  belongs  to  "  does 

live  ;  "  according  to  Rule  IX. 

EXERCISE. 
Analyze  the  following  interrog  ative  sentences  ;  tell  which  are 
direct  and  which  are  indirect.   Parse  the  interrogatives. 

Are  you  here?  Is  your  brother  well?  Have  you 
returned  ?  Is  your  master  at  home  ?  "Will  you  ride  to  town 
to-day  ?  Do  you  think  him  so  base  ?  Have  you  learned 
the  lesson  ?  May  we  not  sit  under  this  tree  ?  Must  I  leave 
town  to-morrow?  Am  I  my  brother's  keeper?  Shall  I 
send  the  letter  to  the  office  ?  Did  you  kill  the  Nenuean 
lion  ?  Who  reported  the  doings  of  congress  ?  Whose  hat 
is  this  ?  Whom  did  the  president  nominate  ?  Which  book 
did  you  take?  What  name  have  his  parents  given  him? 
How  many  soldiers  were  killed  in  the  battle  ?  What  kind 
of  people  first  inhabited  England  ?  When  shall  you  visit 
the  Springs  ?  How  long  did  he  stay  ?  How  often  does 
George  visit  his  mother  ?  Where  is  the  promised  fruit  of 
all  his  toil  ?  Whence  comes  this  tumult  ?  Why  do  you 
weave  around  you  this  thread  of  occupation  ?  How  did  you 
come?  In  what  way  do  you  intend  to  go?  To  whom 
shall  I  deliver  the  message  ?  At  what  time  shall  we  send 
the  letter? 

Convert  the  above  questions  into  declarative  sentences* 
Place  a  period  ( . )  at  the  end  of  each. 

Model.    You  are  here.     Your  brother  is  well. 


140  FIRST   LESSONS 

Write  sentences  introduced  by  the  following  interrog- 
atives :  — 

Why  ?  On  what  account  ?  Where  ?  When  ?  Whose  h 
Of  whom  ?  On  what  ?  Whither  ?  Whence  ?  In  what 
place  ?  How  many  ?  Whom  ?  Which  ?  In  considera- 
tion of  what  ?  On  what  condition  ?  How  ?  Wherein  ? 
By  what  ?  Over  whom  ?  On  what  ?  Under  what  ? 
Through  what  ?     On  whose  account  ? 

TFh'te  an  answer  to  each. 

How  many  kinds  of  interrogative  sentences  are  there  ?  Name 
them.  What  is  a  direct  interrogative  sentence  ?  An  indirect  ? 
What  are  the  principal  interrogatives  ? 


COMPLEX  SENTENCES 
LESSON    XL. 

THE   SUBJECT  MODIFIED  BY  THE  ADDITION  OF  CLAUSES. 

Note.  The  pupil  has  seen  that,  when  one  word  or  phrase  is 
joined  subordinately,  so  as  to  limit  another  word  or  phrase,  the 
two  united  form  a  complex  element.  He  is  now  to  see  that  two 
sentences  may  be  joined  so  that  one  shall  be  subordinate  to  the 
Dther  and  limit  it,  thus  forming  a  complex  sentence. 

Instead  of  a  single  vjord  or  phrase,  a  subordinate 
proposition  may  be  used  to  limit  the  subject  ;  as, 
"  The  statements  which  were  made,  are  true." 

The  limiting  proposition,  whether  joined  to  the 
subject  or  predicate,  is  called  subordinate,  because 
it  depends  upon  another  proposition,  which,  in  refer 
ence  to  it,  is  called  principal. 


^        or  the     •   "/ 

;imvEftsiT 

The  propositions  which  unite  to  form  a  sentence 
are  called  clauses. 

A  complex  sentence  is  formed  by  uniting  a  pririr 
tipal  and  a  subordinate  clause.  . 

A  complex  sentence  is  formed  by  uniting  two  dissimilar  simple 
sentences,  just  as  a  complex  element  is  formed  by  uniting  two 
dissimilar  simple  elements. 

The  parts  which  are  essential  to  a  subordinate 
clause  are,  a  connective,  a  subject,  and  a  predicate. 

The  connective  is  called  subordinate,  because  it 
renders  the  proposition  which  follows  it  subordinate 
to  some  part  of  the  principal  proposition  with  which 
it  is  connected. 

These  connectives  are  parsed  by  the  following  rule  :  — 

Rule  XVI.  Subordinate  connectives  are 'used 
to  join  dissimilar  elements. 

Note  1.  These  connectives  are  of  three  kinds,  —  conjunctions, 
conjunctive  adverbs,  and  relative  pronouns. 

Note  2.  In  most  cases,  the  subordinate  connective  has  a  corres 
ponding  word  in  the  principal  clause,  called  the  correlative  ,  as, 
"  He  was  so  much  injured  that  he  could  not  walk." 

Note  3.  A  subordinate  connective  always  unites  the  clause 
which  it  introduces  to  the  word  which  the  clause  limits  ;  as,  u  ) 
perceive  that  you  need  assistance." 

Subordinate  clauses  are  divided,  according  to 
their  nature  and  use,  into  substantive,  adjective,  and 
adverbial. 

A  substantive  clause  is  a  substantive  or  an  infinitive  expanded 
into  a  proposition  ;  as,  "  Stealing  is  base  "  =  "  To  steal  is  base  "  »= 
m  That  one  should  steal  is  base." 


142  FIRST   LESSONS 

An  adjective  clause  is  an  adjective,  participle,  or  adjective  phrase, 
expanded  into  a  proposition  ;  as,  "  A  generous  man  =  a  man  of 
generosity  =  a  man  who  is  generous,  will  be  honored." 

An  adverbial  clause  is  an  adverb,  or  adverbial  phrase,  expanded 
into  a  proposition  ;  as,  "The  ship  sailed  early  —  before  sw7Wfcse  = 
before  the  sun  rose." 

Whenever  a  clause  is  used  to  limit  a  noun  or  pronoun  it  becomes  • 
an  adjective  element,  and  is  hence  called  an  adjective  clause  ;  as, 
"  A  man  who  is  industrious,  will  gain  respect." 

Adjective  clauses  are  introduced  by  relative  pro- 
nouns, which  serve  to  connect  them  with  a  limited 
noun  or  pronoun  called  the  antecedent ;  as,  "  The 
evil  that  men  do,  lives  after  them." 

The  agreement  of  the  relative  is  determined  by  the  following 
Rule :  — 

Rule  XVII.  The  relative  must  agree  with  its 
antecedent  in  person,  number,  and  gender,  but  not 
necessarily  in  case. 

Note  1.  This  rule  is  equally  true  of  the  personal  and  interroga 
tive,  pronouns,  though  they  do  not  always,  like  the  relative,  hava 
an  immediate  antecedent. 

Note  2.     When  the  antecedent  is  compound,  apply  Rule  XII. 

Note  3.  When  the  antecedent  is  a  collective  noun,  the  pronoun 
should  be  in  the  plural  number,  if  the  antecedent  refers  to  the  indi 
viduals  composing  the  collection  ;  otherwise  it  should  be  in  the 
singular  ;  as,  "  The  committee  who  were  appointed  last  year  sub- 
mitted no  report."  If  reference  were  made  to  the  committee  as  a 
body,  who  could  not  be  used,  but  which  or  that  must  be  substituted. 

Note  4.  Relative  pronouns  often  relate,  not  to  a  word,  but  to  a 
preceding  phrase  or  clause ;  as,  "  The  boy  closed  the  blinds,  which 
darkened  the  roomy 

Note  5.  The  case  of  the  relative  depends  upon  the  construction 
of  the  adjective  clause;  as,  "A  man  who  perseveres  will  be  hon- 
ored ;  "  a  The  gentleman  whose  aid  was  solicited  has  left  the  city  ; " 
"  The  book  which  I  purchased  is  damaged  ;  "  "  The  house  in  which 
he  lived  has  passed  into  other  hands." 


IN    GRAMMAR.  143 

Models  for  Analysis. 

A  man  who  finds  not  satisfaction  in  himself,  seeks  for  U 
in  vain  elsewhere. 

It  is  a  complex  sentence,  because  it  con 
tains  two  dissimilar  clauses. 

Man is  the  subject  of  the  principal  clause. 

Seeks is  the  predicate. 

The  subject is  limited  by  "  a,"   also  by  the  adjective 

clause,  "  who  finds  not  satisfaction  in  him 
self,"  which  describes  "  man." 

The  complex  subject .  is  "  A  man  who  finds  not  satisfaction  in 
himself." 

The  predicate is  limited  by  "for  it,"    "in  vain,"   and 

"  elsewhere." 

The  complex  predicate  is  u  seeks  for  it  in  vain  elsewhere." 

Wlio is  the  subject  of  the  adjective  clause. 

Finds is  the  predicate. 

The  predicate is  limited,  first,  by  "  not ;  "  secondly,  by 

"  satisfaction  ;  "  and  thirdly,  by  "  in  him 
self." 

Wlio is  a  relative  pronoun,  of  the  third  person, 

singular  number,  masculine  gender,  accord- 
ing to  Rule  XVII.  ;  is  the  subject  of  the 
proposition,  "  who  finds,"  &c,  according  to 
Eule  I.,  and  connects  this  proposition  with 
"man,"  the  subject  of  the  principal  clause, 
according  to  Eule  XVI. 

EXERCISE. 

Analyze  the  following  examples,  and  parse  the  relatiit 
pronouns  : — 

The  rewards  which  are  promised,  shall  be  given.  Cannot 
the  man  who  is  faithfully  attached  to  religion  be  relied  on 
with  confidence  ?  He  whom  I  loved  is  dead.  Will  not  those 
who  raise  envy  incur  censure  ?  The  globe  on  which  we 
live,  is  but  a  planet.  Whatever  violates  nature  cannot  bo 
innocent.     Whoever  forgets  a  benefit,  is  an   enemy  to 


144  FIRST   LESSONS 

society.  Will  not  he  whose  desires  are  boundless,  always 
be  restless  ?  The  opinion  that  children  may  grow  up  as  they 
please,  seems  to  prevail.  The  reason  why  he  left  his  mother 
in  such  peril,  has  never  been  satisfactorily  given. 

Write  twenty  sentences,  limiting  the  subject  of  each  by  an 
adjective  clause.  In  Jive,  let  the  relative  be  in  the  nominative 
case ;  in  five,  let  it  be  in  the  possessive  case  ;  in  five,  in  the 
objective  case  after  a  transitive  verb;  *  and  in  five,  let  it  be  in 
the  objective  after  a  preposition.  Let  ten  of  the  sentences  be 
interrogative.     (See  note  5,  Rule  XVI.) 

Convert  the  following  simple  sentences  into  complex  sen- 
tences, by  expanding  the  Italicized  adjective  elements  into 
clauses :  — 

The  pride  of  wealth  is  contemptible.  The  well-bred  man 
desires  only  to  please.  Reproof  given  in  public  hardens  the 
heart.  Milton  the  poet  was  blind.  The  sun,  vicegerent  of 
his  power,  shall  rend  the  veil  of  parting  night.  A  cottage 
shaded  with  trees,  is  a  pleasant  object.  The  butterfly,  child 
of  the  summer,  flutters  in  the  sun.  Caesar,  the  enslaver  of 
his  country,  was  stabbed  in  the  senate-house.  The  house 
of  my  father  stands  near  the  road.  My  brother's  dog  was 
killed. 

Model.     The  pride  which  wealth  begets  is  contemptible. 

Change  any  twelve  of  the  foregoing  to  interrogative  sen* 
tences. 

Model.  Is  not  the  pride  which  wealth  begets  contempt- 
ible? 

Write  complex  sentences  to  the  following  compound  subjects, 
limiting  each  by  an  adjective  clause,  (See  Rule  XII.) 

The  boy  or  the  girl.  The  sun  and  moon.  James  or 
John.    The  fox  and  the  geese.    Not  the  servant,  but  the 

*  A  word  is  said  to  he  in  the  objective  after  a  yerb,  when  it  completes  it* 
meaning,  even  though  it  is  placed  before  it. 


IN   GRAMMAR.  145 

master.  Susan,  and  not  the  sister.  Neither  the  man  nor 
the  woman.  Those  books  or  slates.  This  boy  or  his 
parents.  Some  insect  or  reptile.  Those  trees  or  shrubs. 
Model.  The  boy  or  the  girl  who  painted  this  picture 
deserves  much  praise. 

What  other  forms  besides  a  single  word  or  phrase  may  be  used 
to  limit  the  subject  ?  What  is  the  limiting  proposition  called  ? 
What  are  the  propositions  which  form  a  sentence  called  ?  How  is 
a  complex  sentence  formed  ?  How  many  parts  are  essential  to  a 
subordinate  clause  ?  What  are  they  ?  Why  is  the  connective 
called  subordinate  ?  Give  Rule  XVI.  How  are  subordinate 
clauses  divided?  When  is  a  clause  called  adjective?  By  what 
are  adjective  clauses  introduced  ?     Give  Rule  XVII. 


LESSON    XLI. 

T&E   PREDICATE   MODIFIED   BY   THE   ADDITION    OF 
CLAUSES. 

The  Objective  Element.  Instead  of  a  tvord  or 
phrase,  a  clause  may  be  used  to  complete  the 
meaning  of  a  transitive  verb  ;  as,  "  I  perceive  that 
you  have  ordered  a  supply." 

Objective  clauses  are  substantive  clauses  in  the 
objective  case.  They  may  be  introduced  by  that, 
but  that,  whether,  and  the  various  interrogatives. 
(See  Lessons  XXIV.  and  XXXIX.) 

Substantive  clauses  in  the  objective,  generally  follow  verbs 
denoting,  —  1st.  Some  act  or  state  of  the  mind  (as  perception, 
emotion,  or  will;)  —  2d.  A  declaration,  order,  or  statement;  as,  "I 
wish  that  you  would  assist  me ; "  "  The  farmer  declared  that  his 
watch  had  .gained  half  an  hour  in  the  night." 

18        k 


146  FIRST  LESSONS 

Model  for  Analyzing  and  Parsing. 

Do  you  know  that  you  have  wronged  him  ? 

It  is  a  complex  sentence,  because  it  is  composed 
of  dissimilar  clauses ;  interrogative,  because  it 
asks  a  question;  direct,  because  it  can  be  an- 
swered by  yes  or  no. 

You is  the  subject  of  the  principal  clause. 

Do  know    ....  is  the  predicate. 

The  predicate  .  is  limited  by  "  that  you  have  wronged  him,"  an 
objective  element,  denoting  what  is  known.  It  is 
used  as  a  noun,  third  person,  singular  number, 
neuter  gender,  and  is  the  object  of  "do  know;" 
according  to  Kule  VIII.  "  Do  know  that  you 
have  wronged  him,"  is  the  complex  predicate. 

You is  the  subject  of  the  subordinate  clause. 

Have  wronged   .  is  the  predicate. 

The  predicate  .  is  limited  by  "  him,"  a  simple  objective  element, 
showing  whom. 

That is  a  subordinate  conjunction,  and   connects  the 

substantive  clause,  "you  have  wronged  him,"  to 
the  predicate  of  the  principal  clause,  "know," 
according  to  Rule  XVI. 

EXERCISE. 

Analyze  the  following  propositions  according  to  the 
model :  — 

I  believed  that  all  these  objects  existed  within  me.  I 
know  not  whether  he  will  go.  Will  you  tell  me  whom  you 
saw  on  the  mall  ?  We  knew  whose  place  was  vacated.  I 
knew  not  where  I  was.  Will  you  tell  me  why  you  are  sad  ? 
The  teacher  showed  me  wherein  I  had  erred.  My  uncle 
explained  how  the  seasons  are  produced.  Will  you  show 
me  why  we  invert  the  divisor  ?  "I  always  thought,"  said 
he,  u  that  philosophy  served  to  make  men  happier."  They 
say  that  they  have  bought  it.  The  truly  great  consider, 
first,  how  they  may  gain  the  approbation  of  God.  He 
inquired,  "  who  comes  there  ?  " 


in  Grammar.  147 

Write  objective  clauses  to  complete  the  meaning  of  the 
following  predicates :  — 

The  fox  said.  I  wish.  Washington  ordered.  You  see. 
They  know.  We  hope.  The  general  perceived.  Some 
suppose.  Many  people  think.  Columbus  declared.  The 
president  directed.  We  understand.  Do  you  consider? 
Can  you  show  ?     Have  they  feared  ? 

Model.     "  The  fox  said  that  the  grapes  were  sour" 

Let  the  following  clauses  be  used  as  objects  in  sentences  of 
your  own,  and  make  the  first  six  interrogative :  — 

Why  vapor  rises ;  how  the  truth  can  be  shown ;  when  the 
boat  is  to  sail ;  where  the  book  may  be  found ;  on  what  the 
rule  depends  ;  that  the  ^arth  turns  on  its  axis ;  whether  we 
shall  go  ;  but  that  I  shall  do  it ;  whence  it  came  ;  how  often 
we  should  write  compositions  j  in  what  place  the  goods  are 
concealed. 

Model.    "  Will  you  tell  why  vapor  rises  t " 

Expand  the  following  nouns,  with  the  words  belonging  to 
them  in  Italics,  into  objective  clauses :  — 

I  forgot  the  time  of  the  lecture.  Socrates  taught  the 
immortality  of  the  soul.  Do  you  believe  the  truth  of  these 
reports'?  Explain  the  cause  of  the  tides.  Show  me  the 
mode  of  its  operation.  We  anticipate  a  pleasant  day.  The 
officer  found  the  place  of  his  concealment.  Did  you  hear  of 
his  illness  ?  Who  told  you  of  our  success  ?  I  wish  to  go. 
He  expects  to  be  appointed.  Will  you  tell  us  the  object  of 
this  meeting  ?     The  heathen  believe  in  a  plurality  of  gods. 

Model.    I  forgot  when  the  lecture  was  to  be  given. 

Adverbial  Element.  Clauses  like  single  words 
or  phrases,  may  denote  place,  time,  cause,  or  man 
tier,  and  are  hence  called  adverbial  clauses. 

Adverbial  clauses  are  generally  introduced  by  a 


148  FIRST   LESSONS 

class   of   words   called    conjunctive   adverbs;    as, 
u  The  flowers  will  bloom,  when  spring  comes.' ' 

Model  for  Analysis. 

When  the  wicked  are  multiplied,  transgression  increaseth. 
It  is  a  complex  sentence.    (Why  ?) 

Transgression  .  .  is  the  subject  of  the  principal  clause. 

Increaseth  ....  is  the  predicate. 

The  predicate  .  is  limited  by  "  when  the  wicked  are  multiplied," 
an  adverbial  clause  denoting  time.  (See  Rule 
IX.)  The  complex  predicate  is,  "increaseth 
when  the  wicked  are  multiplied." 

Wicked is  the  subject  of  the  subordinate  clause. 

Are  multiptied  .  is  the  predicate.  « 

When is  a  subordinate  connective,  (conjunctive  adverb 

of  time,)  and  joius  the  adverbial  clause  which 
it  introduces,  to  the  predicate  of  the  principal 
clause,  according  to  Rule  XVI.  It  limits  "are 
multiplied  "  and  "  increaseth  ;  "  according  to 
Rule  IX. 

Place.  Clauses  denoting  place  answer  the  ques- 
tions,  Whither?   Whence?   Where? 

Clauses  denoting  place  are  introduced  by  the  following  conjunc- 
tive adverbs; — where,  whither,  whence,  wherever,  whithersoever ;  and 
the  phrases,  as  far  as,  as  long  as,  farther  than. 

EXERCISE. 

Analyze  the  following  sentences :  — 

The  soldiers  stopped  where  night  overtook  them.  Where 
your  treasure  is,  there  will  your  heart  be  also.  Whereso- 
ever the  carcass  is,  there  will  the  eagles  be  gathered  together. 
Where  true  religion  has  prevented  one  crime,  false  religions 
have  afforded  a  pretext  for  a  thousand.  Where  all  is  mer- 
cenary, nothing  can  be  magnanimous.  Whither  I  go,  ye 
cannot  come.     I  travelled  where  disappointment  smiles  at 


IN   GRAMMAR.  149 

hope's  career.    Where  there  is  no  law,  there  is  no  trans- 
gression. 

Write  clauses  to  show  the  place  of  the  following  events:  — 

We  went.     The  money  was  concealed.     The  sun  shines. 

The  flies  will  collect.    Bees  may  be  found.     The  plain 

stretches. 

Introduce  the  following  adverbial  clauses  into  appropriate 
sentences  of  your  own. 

Wherever  you  stay ;  where  we  stand  ;  as  far  as  one 
can  see  ;  whither  we  go  ;  farther  than  the  country  is 
inhabited. 

Time.     Clauses  denoting  time  answer  the  ques- 
tions, When  t    How  long  t    How  often  t 

The  principal  conjunctive  adverbs  denoting  time  are,  when, 
v)hile,  whilst,  as,  before,  after,  ere,  till,  until,  since,  ichenever ;  and  the 
phrases,  as  long  as,  as  soon  as,  the  moment,  the  instant,  no  sooner  .  .  . 
than. 

EXERCISE. 

Analyze  the  following  sentences,  and  parse  the  connec- 
tives :  — 

A  dervise  was  journeying  alone  in  the  desert,  when  two 
merchants  suddenly  met  him.  When  the  million  applaud 
you,  seriously  ask  yourself  what  harm  you  have  done. 
When  you  have  nothing  to  say,  say  nothing.  Cromwell 
followed  little  events,  before  he  ventured  to  govern  great 
ones.  The  age  of  miracles  is  passed,  while  that  of  prejudi.  e 
remains.  At  length,  the  dial  instituted  a  formal  enquiry  as 
to  the  cause  of  the  stagnation,  when  hands,  wheels,  weights, 
with  one  voice,  protested  their  innocence.  As  we  were 
walking  together,  we  met  a  stranger.  I  have  not  visited  the 
city  since  we  dissolved  our  partnership.  As  soon  as  we 
came  in  sight,  the  birds  were  frightened  from  the  tree.  I 
will  remain  until  vou  return. 
13*      l 


150  FIRST   LESSONS 

Write  appropriate  clauses,  denoting  time,  to  each  of  the 
following  sentences  :  — 

I  saw  the  smouldering  ruins.  We  heard  a  distant  cry. 
Will  you  answer  my  letter  ?  The  child  may  attend  school. 
Migratory  birds  return  to  the  north.  You  may  play  How 
old  were  you  ?     We  should  aid  our  friends. 

Write  five  complex  interrogative  sentences,  and  let 
the  dependent  clause  denote  time. 

Causal  Clauses.  Causal  clauses  may  denote  a 
cause  or  reason,  a  condition,  a  purpose,  or  a  con- 
cession. They  answer  the  questions,  Why  f  On 
what  condition  ?  For  what  reason  ? 

The  first  of  these  are  introduced  by  because,  for,  as,  whereas, 
since. 

EXERCISE. 

Analyze  the  following  sentences,  and  point  out  the  causal 
clauses :  — 

A  peace  which  consults  the  good  of  both  parties,  is  the 
firmest,  because  both  parties  are  interested  in  its  preserva- 
tion. We  hate  some  persons  because  we  do  not  know  them. 
As  retreat  was  now  impossible,  Colter  turned  the  head  of  the 
canoe.  Ye  receive  me  not,  because  ye  know  him  not. 
Since  you  have  been  intrusted  with  such  treasures,  you 
ought  to  practice  the  utmost  vigilance. 

Write  clauses  which  shall  give  a  reason  for  the  following 
statements  :  — 

The  tides  rise.  The  moon  is  eclipsed.  We  left  the  city. 
We  should  acquire  knowledge.  We  should  form  good 
habits  in  youth.  You  should  honor  your  parents.  Let  us 
ghun  the  company  of  the  vicious.  Improve  your  time. 
Cultivate  agreeable  manners.  Love  your  enemies.  We 
should  sympathize  with  the  suffering. 


IN   GRAMMAR.  151 

Model.  The  tides  rise,  because  the  moon  attracts  the 
water. 

Write  statements  for  which  the  following  causal  clauses 
shall  give  a  reason. 

Because  the  engines  were  out  of  order ;  for  it  rained 
incessantly  ;  since  you  will  not  come  to  me  ;  as  the  troops 
were  much  fatigued  ;  because  you  preferred  to  walk. 

A  conditional  clause  expresses  the  condition 
under  which  an  action  or  event  may  take  place. 
The  verb  of  the  conditional  clause  is  in  the  subjunc- 
tive mode. 

The  connectives  of  conditional  clauses  are,  if  though,  except, 
provided  that.  The  connective  is  sometimes  understood ;  as, 
"  Should  you  leave  the  city,  will  you  write  me?" 

EXERCISE. 

Analyze  the  following  complex  sentences,  point  out  the  con- 
ditional clauses,  and  parse  the  connectives  :  — 

If  a  tree  loses  its  leaves  before  the  fruit  is  ripe,  the  latter 
becomes  withered.  Except  ye  repent,  ye  shall  all  likewise 
perish.  If  you  will  read  my  story,  you  can  judge  for  your- 
self. If  you  would  enjoy  health,  bathe  often.  I  shall  leave 
to-morrow,  unless  my  friend  arrives.  You  may  return,  if 
you  please.  Should  it  rain  to-morrow,  the  lecture  will  be 
postponed.  Were  patrons  more  disinterested,  ingratitude 
would  be  more  rare.  Had  I  acted  from  personal  enmity,  I 
should  justly  be  despised. 

Write  conditional  clauses  to  limit  the  following  sentences, 
used  as  principal  clauses :  — 

We  shall  go.  You  may  attend  school.  The  moon  will 
be  eclipsed.  The  patient  will  recover.  George  will  improve. 
The  ice  will  melt-    The  plants  will  not  thrive     The  stream 


152  FIRST   LESSONS 

cannot  be  crossed.  The  labor  must  be  performed.  Remorse 
will  ensue.  He  can  perform  the  task.  Water  will  become 
we.    Fruit  will  not  ripen. 

Model.    We  shall  go,  if  it  is  pleasant. 

Apply  a  consequence  to  the  following  conditions  :  — 

If  you  leave  ;  should  he  stay ;  had  I  stopped  ;  were  the 
measure  to  be  adopted ;  could  we  ascend  the  ladder ;  unless 
relief  come  immediately  ;  if  the  day  should  be  unpleasant 
should  the  wind  blow;   except  he  yield  to  the  proposal 
provided  that  a  sufficient  number  of  men  can  be  obtained. 

Model.     If  you  leave,  no  one  can  supply  your  place. 

Clauses  which  denote  a  purpose  or  motive,  ars 
called  final  clauses.  They  are  connected  by  thatA 
that  not,  and  lest. 

EXERCISE. 

Analyze  the  following  sentences,  point  out  the  clauses 
denoting  a  purpose,  and  parse  the  connectives :  — 

I  have  brought  a  passage  that  you  may  explain  it.  He 
visited  the  springs,  that  he  might  improve  his  health.  I 
have  been  the  more  careful,  that  I  might  not  be  the  instru- 
ment of  his  ruin.  He  sent  me  a  history  of  Rome,  that  I 
might  examine  it.  I  opened  the  door  that  I  might  see 
who  was  there.  He  went  to  the  city,  that  he  might  consult 
an  attorney. 

Write  clauses  denoting  a  purpose  or  motive  to  the 
following :  — 

We  should  take  exercise.  Avoid  trees  in  a  thunder- 
storm. Study.  Improve  your  time.  Shun  bad  com- 
pany. Take  heed.  Reprove  not  a  scorner.  Answer 
not  a  fool  according  to  his  folly.  Oblige  your  friends. 
He  opened  the  window.     He  fled  his  country. 

Change  the  above  clauses  denoting  purpose  to  infinitives^ 


IN    GRAMMAR.  158 

Write  sentence*?  in  wliicli  the  following  infinitives  shall 
denote  purpose,  and  then  change  them  to  clauses :  — 

To  see  his  brother  ;  to  hear  the  news  *,  to  enjoy  the  sea- 
breeze  ;  to  write  a  letter  ;  to  educate  his  children  ;  to  take 
lessons  in  music  ;  to  catch  a  robber  ;  to  sell  his  furniture  , 
to  obtain  a  situation  in  the  bank. 

An  adversative  clause  is  used  when  something  is 
conceded  as  opposed  to  a  result. 

The  principal  connectives  of  adversative  clauses  are,  though, 
although,  notwithstanding,  however,  while,  and  sometimes  whatever, 
and  whoever. 

EXERCISE. 

Analyze  the  following  sentences,  and  point  out  the  adversa- 
tive clause :  — 

Though  he  was  rich,  yet  for  our  sakes  he  became  poor. 
Although  the  place  was  unfavorable,  nevertheless  Caesar 
determined  to  attack  the  enemy.  However  careless  he 
might  seem,  his  fortune  depended  upon  the  decision.  He 
would  pull  a  mote  out  of  his  neighbor's  eye,  while  he  has  a 
beam  in  his  own. 

Expand  the  following  Italicized  phrases  into  adversative 


With  all  his  faults,  I  love  him.  He  applied  for  a  situa- 
tion, without  a  recommendation.  Notwithstanding  the  stormf 
we  commenced  our  journey.  Despite  of  opposition,  he  made 
his  way  to  distinction. 

Model.     Though  he  has  many  faults,  I  love  him. 

Write  a  sentence  having  an  adversative  clause  for  each  of 
the  connectives,  though,  although,  notwithstanding,  however 
while. 


154  FIRST   LESSONS 

Manner.  Clauses  denoting  manner  answer  the 
questions,  How  f  or,  How  much  ?  and  denote  (1,) 
a  correspondence,  (2,)  a  consequence,  (3,)  equality, 
or  inequality  in  magnitude. 

Qyrrespondence  is  generally  indicated  by  as,  just  as,  so  —  as ; 
Consequence,  by  so  —  that,  such  —  that,  ;  equality \  by  as  —  as ;  inc 
fuality,  by  than,  more  —  than,  less  —  than. 

EXERCISE. 
Analyze  the  following  sentences,  and  tell  which  denote  COR 

RESPONDENCE,  which  CONSEQUENCE,  and  which  EQUALITY 
VT  INEQUALITY. 

As  a  bird  that  wandereth  from  her  nest,  so  is  a  man  that 
wandereth  from  his  place.  %  As  the  door  turneth  upon  its 
hinges,  so  doth  the  slothful  man  upon  his  bed.  Will  you 
read  so  that  you  can  be  heard  ?  Happiness  is  much  more 
equally  distributed  than  some  suppose.  Is  gravity  always 
as  wise  as  it  appears  ?  Experience  is  a  surer  guide  than 
imagination.  Is  it  not  better  to  be  laughed  at  than  ruined  ? 
Moses  built  the  tabernacle,  as  he  was  commanded.  Do  as 
your  parents  bid  you.  Can  you  paint  the  picture  as  she 
does  ?     Our  lesson  is  the  same  as  that  we  had  yesterday. 

Write  clauses  denoting  correspondence,  to  complete  the 
following :  — 

As  a  man  thinketh.     Will  you  be  so  good.     The  pupil  ■ 
wrote  the  copy  just  as.     The  boy  sings  as.     The  task  is  the 
same  as.     Speak  as.    Make  the  mark  just  as. 

Write  clauses  denoting  consequence  or  effect  to  complete 
the  following :  — 

The  day  was  so  stormy.  The  sun  is  so  bright.  The 
patient  had  gained  so  much  strength.     The  hours  seemed 


IN   GRAMMAR.  155 

«o  long.  They  gave  him  so  little  money.  We  should 
acquire  knowledge  so  that.  It  is  so  cold.  We  have  had 
so  much  rain. 

Write  clauses  denoting  comparison  of  equality  applied  to 
the  following  adjectives :  — 

Wise,  great,  stupid,  long,  broad,  fierce,  cool,  strong,  weak, 
thin,  bright,  dark,  faithful. 

Model%    Was  Lycurgus  as  wise  as  Solon  ? 

Write  clauses  denoting  comparison  of  inequality  applied  to 
the  same. 

Model.  Solon  was  wiser  than  Lycurgus  =  Lycurgus 
was  not  so  wise  as  Solon. 

What  form  besides  a  word  or  phrase  may  be  used  to  complete 
the  meaning  of  a  transitive  verb  ?  What  are  objective  clauses  ? 
By  what  are  they  introduced?  What  is  an  adverbial  clause  ? 
How  are  adverbial  clauses  introduced  ?  What  questions  do  clauses 
denoting  place  answer  ?  Repeat  the  words  which  introduce  them. 
What  questions  do  clauses  denoting  time  answer  ?  Repeat  the 
conjunctive  adverbs  denoting  time.  What  may  causal  clauses 
denote  ?  Repeat  the  principal  connectives  of  the  first  class.  What 
is  a  conditional  clause  ?  Give  the  connectives.  What  do  final 
clauses  denote  ?  When  is  an  adversative  clause  used  ?  Give  the 
connectives.  What  questions  do  clauses  denoting  manner  answer  ? 
What  do  they  denote  ?     Give  the  connectives. 


LESSON  XLII. 

COMPLEX  AND   COMPOUND   ELEMENTS   CONTAINING 
CLAUSES. 

When  a  subordinate  clause  is  joined  to  some 
word  or  phrase  by  a  subordinate  connective,  the  two 


156  FIRST    LESSONS 

♦ 

inited  form  a  complex  element ;  as,  "  I  have  brought 
the  booh  which  you  sent  for." 

When  two  subordinate  clauses  are  joined  together 
bj  one  of  the  coordinate  conjunctions,  they  form  a 
compound  element  ;  as,  "  I  thought  that  the  sub- 
stance of  the  fruit  had  become  part  of  my  own,  AND 
that  I  was  endowed  with  the  power  of  transforming 
bodies" 

EXERCISE. 

Analyze  the  following  sentences,  and  point  out  the  complex 
elements :  — 

Most  of  the  palms  bear  fruit,  which  supplies  the  people 
where  they  grow  with  the  greatest  part  of  their  food.  Wasps 
construct  very  curious  nests,  in  which  they  deposit  their 
eggs.  The  care  which  God  takes  of  all  his  creatures  is  sin- 
gularly shown  in  the  modes  in  which  the  eggs  of  insects  are 
preserved  from  cold  or  wet. 

Analyze  the  following  sentences,  and  point  out  the  com- 
pound clauses  :  — 

I  soon  perceived  that  I  had  the  power  of  losing  and  of 
recovering  them,  and  that  I  could,  at  pleasure,  destroy  and 
renew  this  beautiful  part  of  my  existence.  That  their  poetry 
is  almost  uniformly  mournful,  and  that  their  views  of  nature 
were  dark  and  dreary,  will  be  allowed  by  all  who  admit  the 
authenticity  of  Ossian.  I  neither  knew  what  I  was,  where 
I  was,  nor  from  whence  I  came.  Why  we  are  thus  detained, 
or  why  we  receive  no  intelligence  from  home  is  mysterious. 

Amongst  that  number  was  an  old  man,  who  had  fallen  an 
early  victim  to  adversity,  and  whose  d,ays  of  imprisonment, 
reckoned  by  the  notches  which  he  had  cut  on  the  door  of 
his  gloomy  cell,  expressed  the  annual  circuit  of  more  than 


IN    GRAMMAR.  157 

filly  suns.  Bruyere  declares,  that  we  are  come  into  the 
world  too  late  to  produce  any  thing  new  ;  that  nature  and 
life  are  preoccupied ;  and  that  description  and  sentiment 
have  been  long  since  Exhausted. 

When  does  a  subordinate  clause  help  form  a  complex  element '/ 
When  do  subordinate  clauses  form  compound  elements  ? 


LESSON    XLIII. 

PHRASES   AND    CLAUSES    USED   AS    THE   SUBJECT   OR 

PREDICATE. 

Note.  In  the  preceding  lessons  the  subjects  and  predicates  of 
the  exercises  have  been  of  the  simplest  form,  while  the  additions  to 
each  have  been  either  words,  phrases,  or  clauses.  In  this  lesson 
the  pupil  will  see  that  the  subject  or  the  attribute  of  the  predicate 
may  be  a  phrase  or  a  clause. 

The  subject  of  a  sentence  may  be  either  a 
substantive  phrase,  or  a  substantive  clause;  as, 
"  To  steal  is  base ; "  "  That  one  should  steal,  13 
base." 

These  sentences  may  take  either  of  two  forms. 
The  subject  may  be  placed  before  the  predicate,  or 
it  may  be  first  represented  by  the  exjoletive  "  it," 
and  then  placed  after  the  predicate ;  as,  "  To  see 
the  sun  is  pleasant  "  =  "It  is  pleasant  to  see  the 
sun;"  " Sow  it  should  be  done  is  not  clear"  = 
"  It  is  not  clear  how  it  should  be  done" 

Note.  The  "it"  in  the  above  examples  should  not  be  regarded 
as  the  subject.  The  infinitive  or  clause  is  the  subject  after  tlio 
change,  as  much  as  before.  The  expletive  introduces  the  sentence 
in  an  agreeable  manner. 

14 


158  FIRST   LESSONS 

Models  for  Analyzing  and  Parsing. 

To  steal  is  base. 

It  is  a  simple  sentence,  because  it  contains  but 

one  proposition. 
7b  steal is  the  subject,  because  it  is  that  of  which  the 

quality,  "base,"  is  affirmed.    It  is  a  principal 

element  of  the  second  class. 
h  base is   the  predicate,  because  it   is    the  quality 

affirmed  of  "to  steal."    "Is"  is  the  verb,  and 

"  base  "  is  the  attribute. 
To  steal  ...  is  a  verb,  (principal  parts,  steal,  stole,  stolen,) 

in  the  infinitive  mode,  present  tense,  and  is 

used  as  a  noun,  (third  person,  singular  number, 

neuter  gender,  and  nominative  case,)  in  the 

relation  of  subject ;  according  to  Rule  I. 

Who  was  the  author  of  Junius? s  Letters,  has  never  been 
satisfactorily  determined. 

It  is  a  complex  sentence,  because  it  contains  a 
principal  and  a  subordinate  clause. 

Who  was  the  author  of  Junius' s  Letters,  is  the  subject  of  the  princi- 
pal clause. 

Has  been  determined  is  the  predicate. 

The  predicate  ...  is  limited  by  "  satisfactorily,"  an  adverbial 
element  of  the  first  class,  denoting  manner. 

Who  was  the  author,  &c,  is  a  principal  element  of  the  third  class. 
It  is  used  as  a  noun,  third  person,  singular 
number,  neuter  gender,  nominative  case,  and 
is  the  subject  of  the  sentence;  according  to 
Rule  I. 

Wlio is  the  subject  of  the  subordinate  clause,  and 

Was  author  ....  is  the  predicate. 

Avilwr  ....  is  limited  first  by  "the,"  and  secondly  by  "of 

Junius's  Letters." 

Who  .  .  is  an  interrogative  pronoun,  used  in  a  subordi- 
nate clause.  It  has  no  antecedent.  It  is  of 
the  third  person,  singular  number,  masculine 
gender,  nominative  case,  and  is  the  subject  of 
"was;"  according  to  R«ie  IV.  It  connects 
the  two  dissimilar  clausal,  by  Rule  XVI. 


IN   GRAMMAR.  159 

Note.  "  Who  was  the  author"  may  be  considered  us  the  gram- 
matical subject  of  the  complex  sentence,  and  "  Who  was  the  author 
of  Junius' s  Letters,"  the  logical  subject. 

EXERCISE. 

Analyze  the  following  propositions,  and  parse  the  infin- 
itives :  — 

To  bo  good  is  to  be  happy.  To  err  is  human.  To  forgive 
is  divine.  To  obey  is  to  enjoy.  To  swear  is  wicked.  To 
see  the  sun  is  pleasant.  To  acquire  knowledge  is  necessary. 
To  repent  is  our  duty. 

It  is  easy  to  deceive  children.  It  is  wrong  to  excite  false 
hopes.  It  is  pleasant  to  receive  our  friends.  It  is  wrong 
to  hate  our  enemies. 

Write  predicates  to  the  following  infinitives  used  as  sub- 
jects :  — 

To  be  idle;  to  labor;  to  write;  to  cheat;  to  love  our 
enemies ;  to  disobey  our  parents. 

Model.     To  be  idle  is  criminal. 

Write  infinitives  as  subjects  to  the  following  predicates,  the 
sentence  being  introduced  by  "  it " :  — 

It  is  easy.  It  is  contemptible.  It  is  enough.  It  is  diffi- 
cult. It  is  wrong.  It  pleased  him.  It  encourages  a  child. 
It  is  important. 

Analyze  the  following  complex  sentences  according  to  the 
model :  — 

That  the  earth  is  a  sphere,  is  easily  proved.  That  no 
man  is  justified  by  the  law  in  the  sight  of  God,  is  evident 
Whether  the  truth  will  be  made  to  appear,  is  uncertain. 
Where  the  robber  concealed  his  stolen  treasures,  has  never 
been  ascertained.  When  letters  were  first  used,  is  not  cer- 
tain Why  he  resigned  his  office,  will  soon  be  made  known. 
How  he  made  his  escape,  is  a  mystery.  Who  gave  the  infor- 
mation, has  been  ascertained.    Will  he  do  it?  is  the  question. 

Write  the  above  sentences,  and  introduce  each  by  "  it." 


160  FIRST  LESSONS 

Write  substantive  clauses  to  complete  the  following ;  and 
then  change  them  so  as  to  place  the  subject  before  the  predi 
cate,  dispensing  with  "  it " :  - — 

It  is  evident.  It  is  uncertain.  It  appears.  It  has  been 
ascertained.  It  is  mysterious.  It  is  well  known.  It  will  be 
6hown.     It  is  true.     It  is  probable.    It  was  denied  by  none. 

Model.  It  is  evident  that  the  bill  will  be  defeated  =' 
That  the  bill  will  be  defeated,  is  evident. 

Expand  the  following  substantives  and  infinitives, 
with  the  words  joined  to  them  in  Italics,  into  substantive 
clauses  used  as  subjects :  — 

To  swear  is  impious.  To  err  is  human.  The  utility  of 
the  telegraph  is  acknowledged.  The  name  of  the  swimmer 
is  not  known.  The  place  of  his  concealment  has  not  been 
determined.  The  time  of  the  boat's  arrival  was  well  known. 
The  cause  of  his  delay  is  unknown.  The  immortality  of  the 
soul  is  universally  believed.  The  authenticity  of  the  Scrip- 
tures has  been  clearly  proved. 

Model.  That  one  should  swear,  is  impious.  That  the 
telegraph  is  useful,  is  acknowledged. 

The  predicate  of  a  proposition  may  be  formed  by 
means  of  the  copula  and  a  substantive  or  adjective 
phrase,  or  a  substantive  clause;  as,  "To  obey  is  to 
enjoy ; "  "  George  was  in  fault; "  "  My  desire  is 
that  you  may  succeed" 

Model  for  Analyzing  and  Parsing. 

He  is  without  fear. 

Note.    Analyze  as  above. 
h  icithout  fear,  the  predicate,  denotes  a  state  of  the  subject.    "  Is '' 
is  the  copula,  and  "without  fear"  is  the  attribute  , 
it  is  equivalent  to  fearless,  and  relates  to  the  sub 
ject ;  according  to  Rule  III. 


IN   GRAMMAR.  1G1 

Without  ....  is  a  preposition,  and  shows  the  relation  of  <(  fear  " 
to  "  he ;  "  according  to  Rule  XIII. 

/  W is  a  common  noun,  &c,  and  object ve  case,  and  is 

used  to  complete  the  relation  denoted  by  4l  with 
out ; "  according  to  Rule  XIV. 

EXERCISE. 

'Analyze  the  following  propositions,  and  parse  the  prcdv* 
cates :  — 

His  nephew  is  to  be  educated.  The  captive  is  to  be 
released.  George  was  in  fault.  The  child  was  in  ecstacy 
The  passage  is  to  be  found.  He  is  at  supper.  The  patient 
is  in  distress.  Our  word  is  not  to  be  broken.  The  trees 
are  in  blossom.     The  prisoner  is  without  friends. 

Analyze  the  following  complex  sentences,  and  parse  the 
predicates :  — 

My  desire  is,  that  you  may  succeed.  The  question  is, 
How  shall  the  treasury  be  replenished  ?  His  pretence  was, 
that  the  storm  of  the  preceding  evening  prevented  his 
attendance.  Your  belief  is,  that  the  enemy  has  crossed 
the  mountain.  My  determination  is,  that  you  shall  attend 
school  in  the  country. 

Write  complex  sentences  to  the  following  subjects,  and  let 
the  predicates  be  substantive  clauses :  — 

Question,  answer,  recommendation,  proposal,  design, 
words,  orders,  resolution. 

What  besides  a  single  word  may  be  used  for  the  subject  ?  What 
two  forms  may  such  sentences  take  ?  What  besides  a  single  word 
may  unite  with  the  copula  to  form  the  predicate  ? 


162  FIRST   LESSONS 

COMPOUND   SENTENCES. 
LESSON    XLIV. 

CLASSES   OF    COOKDINATE   CLAUSES. 

A  compound  sentence  is  formed  by  joining  two 
principal  clauses. 

The  two  clauses  which  unite  to  form  a  compound  sentence  are 
Kmilar  in  rank ;  hence  they  are  called  coordinate. 

Coordinate  clauses  may  be  divided  into  three 
classes,  according  to  the  connective  used,  —  copu- 
lative, adversative,  and  alternative, 

A  copulative  clause  is  one  that  is  so  united  to 
another  as  to  express  an  additional  thought,  and 
thereby  to  give  a  greater  extent  to  its  meaning ;  as, 
u  Give  me  a  book  and  I  will  give  you  a  slate." 

An  adversative  coordinate  clause  is  one  which 
stands  opposed  to,  or  contrasted  with  the  preceding 
clause ;  as,  "  Vice  stings  us  in  our  pleasures,  but 
virtue  consoles  us  in  our  pains." 

Alternative  clauses  are  such  as  offer  or  deny  a 
choice  between  two  statements  ;  as,  "  We  must  con 
quer,  OR  our  liberties  are  lost." 

Two  connectives  are  often  used  j  when  one  is  placed  in  the  firs? 
and  the  other  in  the  added  clause,  the  two  are  called  correlatives ; 
a3,  *  Not  only  am  I  instructed  by  this  exercise,  but  I  am  also  invigo 
rated ; "  but  when  both  connectives  are  found  in  the  added  clause 
the  second  one  is  called  an  associate  connective.  It  gives  BOntf 
additional  shade  of  meaning  to  the  clause ;  as,  M  Susan  is  learning 
niU3ic  and,  besides,  she  attends  to  drawing."  The  associate  conneo' 
tive  stands  alone,  when  the  principal  conjunction  is  understood ; 
fcs,  "The  storm  has  abated;  therefore  let  us  resume  our  journey  " 


IN   GRAMMAR.  163 

Note.  The  connectives  therefore,  hence,  consequent!*. ,  wherefore 
then,  are  by  some  considered  as  connecting  a  distinct  class  called 
causal  coordinate  clauses.  They  are,  it  is  true,  used  in  coordinate 
clauses,  but  never,  like  and,  or,  nor,  and  but,  connect  the  coordinate 
parts  of  a  clause,  and  in  very  many  cases,  when  used,  one  of  the 
foregoing  conjunctions  precedes  them.  They  have,  hence,  in  this 
as  in  the  larger  work,  been  reckoned  among  those  connectives 
which  serve  to  give  a  specific  shade  of  meaning  to  a  coordinate 
clause. 

The  principal  coordinate  conjunctions  are  (copulative)  —  and  with 
the  correlatives,  both —  and;  as  well — as;  not  only  —  but,  but  also,  but 
likewise;  —  ^adversative)  — but  with  the  correlatives,  indeed . .  but ; 
on  the  one  hand  .  .on  the  other  hand;  now  —  then;  —  (alternative)  — 
or,  nor,  neither  with  the  correlatives,  either .  .  or;  neither  .  .  nor. 

Note.  In  analyzing  compound  sentences,  take  each  clause  sep 
arately  and  parse  the  conjunction  according  to  Rule  XI. 

EXERCISE. 

Analyze  the  following  sentences  and  parse  the  conjunc- 
tions :  — 

Copulative.  I  was  eyes  to  the  blind,  and  feet  was  I  to  the 
lame.  This  part  of  knowledge  has  been  growing,  a  id  it  will 
continue  to  grow  till  the  subject  be  exhausted.  I  conceived 
a  great  regard  for  him,  and  I  could  not  but  mourn  for  the 
loss  he  had  sustained;  The  more  sleek  the  prey,  the  greater 
the  temptation;  and  no  wolf  will  leave  a  sheep,  to  dine 
upon  a  porcupine.  Not  only  am  I  instructed  by  this  exer- 
cise, but  I  am  also  invigorated.  A  hero  on  the  day  of  battle 
has  sacrificed  a  meal,  and  shall  we  therefore  pity  him  ?  The 
situation  is  not  suited  to  his  tastes  ;  the  compensation,  more- 
over, is  meagre.  Green  is  the  most  refreshing  color  to  the 
eye  \  hence  Providence  has  made  it  the  common  dress  of 
nature. 

Adversative.  1  strenuously  opposed  those  measures,  but 
it  was  not  in  my  power  to  prevent  them.  We  submit  to  the 
society  of  those  that  can  inform  us,  but  we  seek  the  society 


164  FIRST   LESSONS 

of  those  whom  we  can  inform.  Vice  stings  us  even  in  our 
pleasures,  but  virtue  consoles  us  even  in  our  pains.  They 
have,  indeed,  honored  them  with  their  praise,  but  they  have 
disgraced  them  with  their  pity.  Some  men  know  but  little 
of  their  profession,  but  yet  they  often  succeed  in  life  better 
than  those  whose  attainmonts  they  can  never  reach.  A 
clownish  air  is  but  a  small  defect ;  still  it  is  enough  to  make 
a  man  disagreeable. 

Alternative.  A  jest  is  not  an  argument;  nor  is  a  loud 
laugh  a  demonstration.  I  neither  learned  wisdom,  nor  have 
I  a  knowledge  of  the  holy.  He  either  left  the  key  in  the 
door,  [or]  else  the  robber  had  a  false  key.  I  have  none ; 
else  would  I  give  it.     He  is  either  sick  or  fatigued. 

Add  either  copulative,  adversative,  or  alternative  clauses  to 
each  of  the  following  simple  sentences :  — 

We  must  conquer.  The  debt  must  be  paid.  The  child 
will  be  relieved  soon.  He  has  returned.  The  lecture  has 
either  been  very  long.  He  has  not  the  strength  to  accom- 
plish the  work.     We  must  retreat. 

How  may  compound  sentences  be  formed  ?  Into  how  many 
classes  may  coordinate  clauses  be  divided  ?  What  is  a  copulative 
clause  ?  What  is  an  adversative  clause  ,?  What  is  an  alteijiativa 
clause  V 


PROSODY. 
LESSON    XLV. 

DIFFERENT    KIXDS    OF    VERSE. 

Prosody  treats  of  the  laws  of  versification. 
A  verse  is  a  succession  of  accented  and  unaccented  sylla- 
bles, constituting  a  line  of  poetry. 

Verse  is  of  two  lands,  —  rhyme  and  blank  verse. 


IN   GRAMMAR.  165 

[n  rhyme,  there  is  a  correspondence  in  sound  between 
the  last  syllables  of  different  lines. 

Blank  verse  is  without  rhyme. 

Accent  is  a  stress  of  the  voice  placed  upon  a  particular 
syllable,  to  distinguish  it  from  others.  Every  word  consist- 
ing of  more  than  one  syllable,  must  have  one  of  its  syllables 
accented. 

The  quantity  of  a  syllable  is  the  time  employed  in  uttering 
it.     All  syllables  are  either  long  or  short. 

A  long  syllable  is  equal  in  quantity  to  two  short  ones. 

A  foot  is  a  portion  of  verse  containing  two  or  more 
syllables,  combined  according  to  accent. 

The  principal  feet,  in  English,  are  the  iambus,  the  trochee, 
the  anapcest,  and  the  dactyle. 

The  iambus  consists  of  a  short  and  long  syllable. 

The  trochee  of  a  long  and  a  short  syllable. 

The  anapaest  consists  of  two  short  syllables  and  one  long 
one. 

The  dactyle  consists  of  one  long  and  two  short  syllables. 

Scanning  consists  in  dividing  a  verse  into  the  feet  which 
compose  it. 

IAMBIC   VERSE. 

1  Iambic  of  one  foot :  — 

They  go 
To  sow. 

2  Iambic  of  hco  feet :  — 

To  me  J  the  rose 
No  longer  glows. 

8.  Iambic  of  three  feet :  — 

No  roy-  |  al  pomp  }  adorns 

This  King  of  righteousness. 
4*  Iambic  of  four  feet .-  — 

And  cold-  |  er  still  |  the  winds  |  did  blow 
,  And  darker  hours  of  night  cam*  oa. 


166  FIRST   LESSONS 

6.  Iambu  of  fir*  feet,  or  pentameter :  — 

On  lift-  |  ed  rocks,  |  the  drag-  |  on's  late  |  abodes, 
The  green  reed  trembles,  and  the  bulrush  nods. 

6.  Iambic  of  six  feet,  or  hexameter :  — 

His  heart  f  Is  sad,  |  his  hope  |  is  gone,  |  his  light  |  Is  passed  ; 
He  sits  an  1  mourns  in  silent  grief  the  lingering  day. 

7.  Iambic  of  seven  feet,  or  hepta  meter :  — 

The  lof-  |  ty  hill,  |  the  hum-  (  ble  lawn,  |  with  count-  | 
less  beau  |  ties  shine. 
The  silent  grove,  the  solemn  shade,  proclaim  th}r  power  divine. 

Iambic  of  five  feet  is  called  heroic  verse  ;  that  of  six  feet 
is  called  Alexandrine. 

Iambic  of  seven  feet  is  commonly  divided  into  two  lines, 
—  the  first  containing  four  feet,  the  second  three.  This  is 
called  common  metre  ;  as, 

The  lofty  hill,  the  humble  lawn, 

With  countless  beauties  shine  , 
The  silent  grove,  the  solemn  shade, 

Proclaim  thy  power  divine. 

In  long  metre,  each  line  has  four  iambic  feet ;  in  short 
metre,  the  first,  second,  and  fourth  lines  contain  three 
iambic  feet,  the  third  four. 

Each  species  of  iambic  verse  may  have  one  additional 
short  syllable.     Thus,  in  the  second  species,  — 
Upon  |  a  moun-  |  tain. 

TROCHAIC    VERSE 
I.   Trochaic  of  one  foot :  — 

Changing, 
Hanging. 

2    Trochaic  of  two  feet :  — 

Fancy  ]  viewing, 
Joys  ensuinr 


IN   GRAMMAR.  167 

8.  Trochaic  qf  three  feet :  ~ 

Go  where  |  glory  |  waits  thee. 

But  when  fame  elates  thee. 
4.    Trochaic  of  four  feet :  — 

Round  a  |  holy  |  calm  dlf-  |  fusing, 

Love  of  peace  and  lonely  musing. 
6.  Trochaic  of  five  feet :  — 

All  that  |  walk  on  j  foot  or  |  ride  in  |  chariots, 
All  that  dwell  in  palaces  or  garrets. 
6.   Trochaic  of  six  feet :  — 

On  a  |  mountain  |  stretched,  be-  J  neath  a  j  hoary  |  willow. 
Lay  a  shepherd  swain,  and  viewed  the  rolling  billow. . 

In  trochaic  verse,  the  accent  is  placed  upon  the  odd  sylla- 
bles ;  in  iambic,  on  the  even. 
Trocliaic  verse  may  take  an  additional  long  syllable  ,  as, 

Idle  |  after  |  dinner,  |  in  his  j  chair 
Sat  a  farmer,  ruddy,  fat,  and  fair. 

ANAPvESTIC   VERSE. 

1.  Anapmstic  of  one  foot :  — 

But  In  vain 
They  complain. 

2.  Anapaestic  of  two  feet :  — 

Where  the  sun  |  loves  to  pause 
With  so  fond  a  delay. 

3.  Anapaestic  of  three  feet :  — 

From  the  cen-  |  tre,  all  round  |  to  the  sea, 
I  'm  lord  of  the  fowl  and  the  brute. 

4.  Anapmstic  of  four  feet :  — 

At  the"  close  |  of  the  day,  |  when  the  ham-  |  let  Is  still, 
And  mortals  the  sweets  of  forgetfulness  prove. 

In  anapaestic  verse,  the  accent  falls  on  every  third  syllable. 
The  first  foot  of  an  anapaestic  verse  may  be  an  iambus  ;  as, 

And  mor-  |  tals  the  sweets  |  of  forget-  |  ItilnSss  prSvo 


168  jmtfeT  LESSONS 


DACTYLIC     VERSE. 


1.  Dactylic  of  one  foot :  — 

Cheerfully, 
Fearfully. 

2.  Dactylic  of  two  feet ;  — 

Free  from  anx  |  iStj^, 
Care  and  satiety. 

3.  Dactylic  of  three  feet :  — 

Wearing  a-  |  way  in  his  |  youthfiilnesg, 
Loveliness,  beauty,  and  truthfulness. 

4.  Dactylic  of  four  feet :  — 

Boys  will  an-  |  ticipate,  |  lavish,  and  |  dissipate 
All  that  your  busy  pate  hoarded  with  care. 

Few  poems  are  perfectly  regular  in  their  feet.  The 
different  kinds  of  feet  are  often  mingled  in  the  same  verse. 
Thus :  — 

I  come,  |  I  come ;  |  ye"  have  called  |  me  long  ; 

I  come  |  o'er  the  moun-  |  tains  with  light  |  and  song. 

Note.  For  exercises  in  scanning,  let  the  pupil  apply  these  rules 
to  different  verses  in  his  reading  lessons. 


LESSON   XLVI. 

PUNCTUATION. 

Punctuation  is  the  art  of  dividing  written  composition 
by  means  of  points.  * 

The  principal  points  are  the  comma  ( , ),  the  semicolon  (; ), 
the  colon  ( : ),  the  dash  (  —  ),  the  parenthesis  (  ),  the  period 
( . ),  the  interrogation  point  (  ?  ),  and  the  exclamation  point 


IN  GRAMMAR.  169 

THE  COMMA. 

The  comma  is  used  to  denote  the  shortest  pause,  and 
commonly  separates  the  elements  of  a  simple  or  complex 
sentence. 

Note.  The  pupil  should  recollect  that  the  elements  of  a  sentence 
tnay  be  either  words,  phrases,  or  clauses.  The  most  general  Rules 
only,  are  here  given  ;  for  more  particular  Rules  see  "  Analysis  of 
Sentences." 

Rule  I.  When  the  elements  of  a  sentence  are  simple, 
and  are  arranged  in  the  natural  order,  they  should  not  be 
separated  ;  but  when  any  element  is  transposed,  loosely 
connected,  or  used  parenthetically,  it  should  be  pointed  off. 

EXAMPLES. 

"The  path  of  virtue  is  the  path  of  peace." 

"  Self-denial  is  the  sacrifice  which  virtue  must  make." 

"  Intrinsically,  the  other,  is  the  most  valuable." 

"  In  general,  his  work  is  superior  to  mine." 

"  He  lived,  as  he  said,  upon  a  vegetable  diet." 

Rule  II.  WJien  an  element  is  complex,  and  considera- 
bly extended,  it  should  be  pointed  off  by  the  comma. 

Note.  This  rule  applies  to  the  complex  subject  of  a  simple 
sentence  when  long,  or  to  the  noun  in  apposition  when  considerably 
extended  ;  as,  "  The  intermixture  of  evil  in  human  society,  serves 
to  exercise  the  noblest  virtues  of  the  human  soul ;"  "Paul,  the 
apostle  of  the  Gentiles." 

Rule  ILL  WJjen  an  element  is  compound,  the  com- 
ponent parts,  if  they  exceed  two,  are  separated  by  the 
comma ;  as,  "  Some  men  sin  frequently,  deliberately,  and 
presumptuously" 

Note.  If  the  component  parts  do  not  exceed  two,  they  are 
pointed  off  —  (1,)  when  or  denotes  an  alternative  of  words,  (not 
ideas);  as,  "  The  gulf,  or  bay  is  dangerous;"  —  (2,)  when  they 
denote  contrast ;  as,  "  Though  deep,  yet  clear ;  "  —  (3,)  when  one 
or  both  are  complex ;  as,  *'  ile  left,  and  took  his  brother  with  him." 


170  FIRST   LESSONS 

THE   COLON   AND   SEMICOLON. 

The  colon  and  semicolon  are  used  chiefly  to  separate  the 
/tiembers  of  a  compound  sentence  ;  as,  "  Every  thing  grows 
old :  every  thing  passes  away  ;  every  thing  disappears." 

Note  1.  The  colon  is  now  but  little  used,  except  before  exam 
pies  following  the  expressions  as  follows,  the  following  examples,  in 
these  words,  &c.  ;  as,  u Perform  the  following  exercises  :  "  —  "Ho 
used  these  words  :  '  Mr.  President,'  &c." 

Xote  2.  When,  in  a  complex  sentence,  several  subordinate 
clauses  are  united  to  each  other,  having  a  common  dependence 
upon  the  principal  clause,  they  are  separated  by  the  semicolon ;  as, 
"  Philosophers  assert  that  Nature  is  unlimited  in  her  operations  ; 
that  she  has  inexhaustible  treasures  in  reserve  ;  that  knowledge 
will  always  be  progressive  ;  and  that  future  generations  will  con 
tinue  to  make  discoveries." 

THE   DASH   AND   PARENTHESIS. 

The  dash  is  used  where  there  is  a  significant  pause,  an 
unexpected  transition  in  the  sentence,  or  where  a  sentence 
is  left  unfinished  ;  as,  "He  sometimes  council  takes  —  and 
sometimes  snuff ;  "  "  But  I  must  first " 

The  dash  is  now  frequently  used  instead  of  the  parenthesis  ;  as, 
"  The  colonists  —  such  is  human  nature  —  desired  to  burn  the  town 
in  which  they  had  been  so  wretched." 

The  parenthesis  is  used  to  enclose  a  part  of  a  sentence 
not  necessary  to  the  construction,  but  in  some  way  explana- 
tory of  the  meaning  of  the  sentence  ;  as,  "  Consider  (and 
may  the  consideration  sink  deep  into  ycHir  hearts)  the  fatal 
consequences  of  a  wicked  life." 

THE   PERIOD. 

The  period  is  used  at  the  close  of  a  declarative  or  impera- 
tive sentence  ;  as,  "  The  work  is  done."  "  Obey  your 
parents." 

The  period  is  also  used  to  denote  an  abbreviation  :  as. 
"T  11; "  "Dr." 


IN   GRAMMAR.  171 

INTERROGATION   POINT. 

An  interrogation  point  is  used  at  Ihe  close  of  a  question  ; 
as,  "  Who  comes  there  ?  " 

EXCLAMATION  POINT. 

An  exclamation  point  is  used  at  the  close  of  an  exclama- 
tory sentence  ;  as,  "  How  unsearchable  are  his  ways  ! " 

An  exclamation  point  is  often  used  within  a  sentence,  after  an 
exclamatory  expression  or  an  interjection ;  as,  "  0,  Jove  supreme  ! 
whom  men  and  gods  revere  !  "  "  Oh  !  let  soft  pity  touch  the 
mind  !  " 

RULES   FOR   THE   USE   OF   CAPITAL   LETTERS. 

1.  The  first  word  of  every  entire  sentence  should  begin 
with  a  capital ;  as,  "  Jesus  wept." 

2.  Tities  of  honor  and  respect,  and  every  proper  name, 
and  every  adjective  derived  from  a  proper  name,  should 
begin  with  a  capital  ;  as,  His  Highness,  Boston,  Bostonian. 

3.  Every  appellation  of  the  Deity  should  begin  with  a 
tapital  ;  as,  God,  Jehovah,  the  Eternal. 

4.  The  first  word  of  every  line  in  poetry  should  begin 
n:th  a  capital. 

5.  The  words  /  and  0  should  always  be  capitals. 

6.  Any  important  word  may  begin  with  a  capital. 

7.  The  principal  words  in  the  titles  of  books  should  begin 
with  capitals  ;  as,  Pope's  "Essay  on  Man." 

8.  The  first  word  of  a  direct  quotation,  when  the  quota- 
tion forms  a  complete  sentence  by  itself,  should  begin  with 
a  capital. 


172  FIRST   LESSONS 

EXERCISE. 

Explain  the  use  of  the  points  in  the  following  examples  : — 
Yet,  at  thy  call,  the  hardy  tar  pursued, 
Pale,  but  intrepid  ;  sad,  but  unsubdued. 
Yes !  Bunker  Hill  Monument  is  completed.     Here  it 
stands,  fortunate  in  the  natural  eminence  on.  which  it  is 
erected  ;  majestic  in  its  object  and  purpose. 

Where  art  thou  fled  ? 

In  pride,  in  reasoning  pride,  our  error  lies ; 

All  quit  their  sphere,  and  rush  into  the  skies. 

Punctuate  the  following  examples :  — 

Shakspeare  Butler  and  Bacon  have  rendered  it  extremely 
difficult  for  all  who  come  after  them  to  be  sublime  witty  or 
profound  Of  the  professions  it  may  be  said  that  soldiers 
are  becoming  too  popular  parsons  too  lazy  physicians 
too  mercenary  and  lawyers  too  powerful  Of  method  it 
may  be  said  if  we  make  it  our  slave  it  is  well  but  it  is  bad 
if  we  are  slaves  to  method  Will  a  man  rob  God  Who 
came  from  the  mountain  King  Agrippa  believest  thou  the 
prophets    What  black  despair  what  horror  fills  his  heart 

Correct  the  following  by  inserting  capitals  where  they  be- 
long :  — 

the  first  word  of  every  entire  sentence  should  begin  with 
a  capital,    the  british  nation  were  shocked  by  an  attempl 
to  assassinate  her  majesty,     the  lord  reigneth. 
why,  ye  tenants  of  the  lake 
for  me  your  watery  haunt  forsake, 
i  heard  him  say  "  o,  the  times,  the  times 
i  have  read  pope's  essay  on  man. 


IN    GRAMMAR.  173 

fain  would  i  say  "  forgive  my  foul  offence !  " 
fain  promise  never  more  to  disobey  ; 
but  should  my 'author  health  again  dispense 
again  i  might  desert  fair  virtues  way 


LESSON   XLVII. 
RULES  — EXAMPLES  TO  BE  CORRECTED. 

'       SUBJECT. 

Rule  I.  A  noun  or  pronoun  used  as  the  subject  of  a 
proposition  must  be  in  the  nominative  case ;  as,  "  Life  is 
short." 

(For  notes,  see  page  93.) 

PREDICATE. 

Rule  II.  A  noun  or  pronoun  used  with  the  copula  to 
form  the  predicate,  must  be  in  the  nominative  case ;  as, 
"  Cicero  was  an  orator." 

(For  notes,  see  page  96.) 

Rule  III.  An  adjective  used  with  the  copula  to  form 
the  predicate,  belongs  to  the  subject ;  as,  "  The  stars  are 
bright." 

(For  notes,  see  page  98.) 

Rule   IV.     The  verb  must  agree  with  its  subject  in 
number  and  person ;  as,  "  I  am  here ; "  "  Thou  sittest." 
(For  notes,  see  page  100.) 

adjective  element. 
Rule  V.     An  adjective  or  participle  used  as  a  modifier, 
belongs  to  the  noun  or  pronoun  which  it  limits ;  as,  "  Those 
15* 


174  FIRST   LESSONS 

trees  have  fallen ; "  "  A  path  winding  through  the  forest,  in- 
dicated their  course." 
'  (For  notes,  see  page  108.) 

Rule  VI.  A  noun  or  pronoun  used  to  identify  another 
noun  or  pronoun,  is  put  by  apposition  in  the  same  case ;  as, 
14  His  brother  George  was  absent." 

(For  notes,  see  page  111.) 

Rule  VII.  A  noun  or  pronoun  used  to  limit  another 
noun  by  denoting  possession,  must  be  in  the  possessive  case ; 
as,  "  Stephen's  courage  failed." 

(For  notes,  see  page  112.) 

OBJECTIVE   ELEMENT. 

Rule  YLTI.  A  noun  or  pronoun  used  as  the  object  of  a 
transitive  verb  or  its  participles,  must  be  in  the  objective 
case  ;  as,  "  We  paid  him" 

(For  notes,  see  page  115.) 

ADVERBIAL   ELEMENT. 

Rule  IX.  Adverbs  are  used  to  limit  verbs,  participles, 
adjectives,  and  other  adverbs  ;  as,  "  The  letter  was  written 
hastily" 

(For  notes,  see  page  117.) 

INTERJECTIONS   AND   THE   CASE   INDEPENDENT. 

Rule  X.  The  nominative  case  independent,  and  the 
interjection,  have  no  grammatical  relation  to  the  other  parts 
of  the  sentence  ;  as,  "  Sirs,  be  of  good  cheer  ; "  "  O,  death 
where  is  thy  sting ! " 

(For  notes,  see  page  119.) 

connectives. 

Note.  —  The  following  rules  apply  either  to  connectives  or  to 
words  in  some  way  associated  with  connectives. 


CUFIVEESIT1 

in  grammar.Vv  /y,       o3rl75 

Rule  XI.     Coordinate  conjunctions  are  used  to  connect 
similar  elements ;   as,  "  Abraham,  Isaac,  and  Jacob,  were 
patriarchs." 
s(For  notes,  see  page  122.) 

Rule  XII.    When  a  verb  or  pronoun  relates  to  two  or  . 
more  nouns  connected  by  a  coordinate  conjunction, — 

(1.)  If  it  agrees  with  them  taken  conjointly,  it  must  be  in 
the  plural  number  ;  — 

(2.)  But,  if  it  agrees  with  them  taken  separately,  it  must 
be  of  the  same  number  as  that  which  stands  next  to  it ;  — 

(3.)  If  it  agrees  with  one,  and  not  the  other,  it  must  be 
of  the  same  number  as  that  with  which  it  agrees. 

Rule  XIII.  A  preposition  is  used  to  show  the  relation 
of  its  object  to  the  preceding  word  on  which  the  object  de- 
pends ;  as,  "  George  went  into  the  garden." 

The  following  is  the  rule  for  the  object :  — 

Rule  XIV.  A  noun  or  pronoun  used  to  complete  the 
relation  of  a  preposition,  must  be  in  the  objective  case  ;  as, 
u  They  gathered  around  him." 

(For  notes,  see  page  128.) 

Rule  XV.     The  infinitive  depends  upon  the  word  which 
it  limits  ;  as,  "  We  went  to  see  you." 
(For  notes,  see  page  128.) 

Rule  XVI.  Subordinate  connectives  are  used  to  join 
dissimilar  elements ;  as,  "  They  say  that  they  have  bought 
it." 

(For  notes,  see  page  141.) 

Rule  XVTI.  The ,  relative  must  agree  with  its  antece- 
dent in  person,  number,  and  gender,  but  not  necessarily  in 


176  FIRST   LESSONS 

case  ;   as,  "  The  man  who  is  well  bred,  desires  only  to 
please." 

(For  notes,  see  page  142.) 

ABRIDGED   PROPOSITIONS. 

Note.  —  Though    all,    or   nearly  all  the  particular  cases  in 

abridged  propositions,  (see  note,  bottom  p.  93,)  are  provided  for 

in  the  notes  under  Bules  I.  II.  and  III.,  pp.  93,  96,  and  98,  it  is 

thought  best  to  embody  all  the  cases  absolute  in  one  general  rule. 

iluLE  XV III.  In  an  abridged  proposition,  the  subject 
or  attribute,  when  dependent  on  no  other  word,  is  said  to 
be  absolute  ;  the  subject  is  in  the  nominative  absolute,  and 
the  attribute  (also  in  the  nominative  when  a  noun  or  pro- 
noun) refers  logically  to  what  would  be  the  subject,  were 
the  proposition  complete ;  as,  "  Shame  being  lost,  all  virtue 
is  lost ; "  "  To  be  a  scholar  requires  industry  and  persever- 
ance ; "  "  His  being  a  foreigner  prevented  his  election ;  * 
"  To  be  good  is  to  be  happy ; "  "  Properly  speaking,  "  yes  " 
and  "  no  "  are  not  adverbs." 

EXAMPLES    TO   BE   CORRECTED. 

Kule  I.  Me  wants  a  pencil.  Him  and  me  attend  schocL 
Them  are  the  books.  Him  and  her  are  visiting  in  the  country. 
They  and  me  recited  Geography. 

Model.  —  The  following  may  serve  as  a  general  model  to  be 
imitated  in  other  examples.  '  Me  wants  a  pencil;" — "  Me," 
should  be  changed  to  /,  because  it  is  used  as  the  subject  of  a  prop 
osition,  and  the  subject  of  a  proposition,  by  Rule  I.,  should  be  in 
the  nominative  (not  objective)  case. 

Rule  II.  It  is  me.  Thou  art  him.  If  I  were  her,  I  would 
live  in  the  country.  I  think  it  was  them  who  called.  I  believe  it 
to  be  he.  (See  note  5.  (3)  p.  97.)  I  saw  some  persons  whom  I 
took  to  be  they.    Whom  do  men  say  that  I  am  ?    Whom  was  it  ? 


IN   GRAMMAR.  177 

I  do  not  know  whom  it  was.  It  was  not  me  who  saw  whom  it 
was.  I  am  sure  it  was  not  him  and  me  who  they  called  hypo 
crites. 

Note.  —  Rule  III.,  is  seldom  violated. 

Rule  IV.     We  may  commit  errors  by  using,  — 

1.    The  wrong  person  and  number. 

You  was  absent  yesterday.  I  livest  in  a  brick  house,  but  thou 
lives  in  a  wooden  one.  He  love  to  read.  There  's  two  pens  on 
the  table.  Here 's  five  apples.  Neither  of  his  brothers  are  well. 
Each  of  them  are  away  from  home.  Either  of  the  books  are  good. 
A  variety  of  charming  objects  please  me.  Thou  are  older  than 
my  sister  are. 

2.    The  wrong  form. 

My  cousin  has  wrote  me  a  letter.  The  water  is  all  froze  over. 
I  only  done  it  once.  I  seen  him  strike  his  brother.  The  work- 
man has  began  his  task.  I  have  broke  my  inkstand.  The  pastor 
come  to  see  us  yesterday,  but  I  had  went  away  before  he  come. 
The  bird  has  forsook  her  nest  and  new  away.  You  had  n't  ought 
to  use  such  language. 

3.  The  wrong  tense. 

I  see  the  boy  yesterday.  He  come  to  my  house,  and  I  give 
him  a  slate  pencil.    I  expected  to  have  seen  you  yesterday. 

4.  The  wrong  verb. 

The  sun  sat  at  7  o'clock.  May  I  set  with  some  one  that  has  a 
Geography  ?  George  sot  the  pitcher  on  the  table.  The  ship  is 
laying  in  the  harbor.  He  has  just  laid  down.  They  have  lain 
the  clothes  in  the  wrong  place. 

5.  Improper  contractions. 

Ari't  you  tardy  this  morning?  Wan't  you  at  the  concert 
last  evening  ?  Ha  n't  you  left  your  gloves  ?  You  can  do  it  if 
you  *re  a  mind  to.  I  ha  n't  seen  him  to  day.  May  I  go  as  soon 
as  I  'm  done  reciting  ? 

Rule  V.  (See  note  1,  page  108.)  Those  kind  of  people  sel- 
dom succeed.  I  dislike  these  sort  of  fruit.  Bring  me  them  (those) 
tongs.  Have  you  that  shears  ?  The  wall  is  four  foot  high.  I 
walked  ten  mile. 


1<8  FIRST    LESSONS 

Rule  VI.  r  am  called  a  shepherd,  him  that  guarc.s  the  flock9. 
He  visited  his  cousin,  she  that  lives  in  the  country.  I  saw  the 
minstrels,  they  who  sing  at  concerts. 

Kule  VII.  Johns  coat  is  black.  A  mans  manners  frequently 
influence  his  fortunes.  A  mothers  tenderness  and  a  fathers  care, 
are  natures  gifts  for  mans  advantage.  I  have  studied  Andrews' 
and  Stoddard's  Grammar,  (See  Note  1.)  I  have  been  examining 
Worcester  and  Webster's  Dictionary.  Will  you  obtain  the  presi 
dent's  of  the  society  signature  ?    Miss  B.  has  got  her  wrong  seat 

Rule  VIII.  They  that  help  us,  we  should  reward.  Who  did 
you  see  on  the  Mall  ?  Will  you  let  him  and  I  sit  together  ?  Who 
should  I  find  but  my  cousin  !  I  did  not  know  who  to  send.  Who 
shall  I  send  ?     Who  having  not  seen  we  love. 

Rule  IX.  The  boy  learned  his  lesson  bad.*  My  pen  wo  n't 
write  good.  The  lady  sings  beautiM.  I  han't  got  no  com- 
position wrote.  Charles  wo  n't  let  me  have  no  paper.  No  one 
never  saw  him  doing  nothing,  nowhere,  that  he  had  n't  ought  to 
do.    I  wo  n't  never  play  with  you  no  more.  , 

Rule  X,  needs  no  further  illustrations. 

Rule  XL  Note.  —  Elements  are  similar  in  three  important 
points,  —  (1.)  In  construction  or  rank,  (2.)  in  their  class,  (3.)  in 
their  nature.  Thus,  in  "  He  watched  carefully  and  attentively  ;  " 
"carefully"  and  "attentively"  are  equally  dependent  upon 
"  watched ;  "  —  hence  they  are  of  the  same  rank :  —  they  are  both 
elements  of  the  first  class ;  and  as  they  are  both  adverbs,  they 
are  of  the  same  nature. 

The  work  was  executed  with  rapidity  and  promptly.  It  is  a 
region  distinguished  by  many  charming  varieties  of  rural  scenery, 
and  which  may  he  termed  the  Arcadia  of  Scotland. 

The  fire  destroyed  tables,  and  chairs,  and  sofas,  and  books,an<? 
clothing,  and  carpets.     (See  note.) 

Role  XII.  Earth,  air,  fire,  and  water,  is  the  four  elements  of 
the  ancient  philosophers.  Oil  and  water  never  blends.  George 
cr  Joseph  have  left  their  books  at  home.  Jacob  or  his  son?  was 
in  fault.     The  trees  or  the  fruit  are  mine.    The  sun  and  moon 

*  Adverbs,  not  adjectives,  are  used  to  limit  verbs,  &c. 


IN   GRAMMAR.  179 

which  is  the  largest  heavenly  bodies  shines,  the  one  by  day,  and 
the  other  by  night. 

Kule  xni. 

(1.)  An  improper  omission  of  the  preposition. 

The  house  stands  opposite  the  church. 

He  was  worthy  a  better  fate.  The  culprit  was  banishod  the 
country.    He  could  have  no  abiding  place  this  side  the  Atlantic. 

( 2 . )  The  use  of  the  wrong  preposition. 

I  left  my  books  to  home.  Of  what  does  the  error  consist  ?  I 
differ  with  you.  The  course  of  instruction  is  very  different  now 
to  what  it  was  even  ten  years  ago.  She  is  free  of  pain.  I  have 
not  seen  you  in  a  long  time.  The  book  is  well  adapted  for  his 
capacity.  Some  persons  find  a  difficulty  of  fixing  their  attention. 
The  apples  were  divided  among  two. 

Rule  XIV.  Between  you  and  I,  I  do  n't  like  this  lesson  at  all. 
Who  did  you  go  with  last  night  ?  I  don't  know  who  to  speak  to. 
The  boy  came  and  sat  behind  James  and  I. 

Rule  XV.    Note. — The  to  of  the  infinitive  is  sometimes  im 

Sroperly   omitted   after   other  verbs   than   those   mentioned  hr 
k>te  1. 
Permit  me  take  your  hat.    Please  excuse  my  son's  absence.. 
He  was  made  feel  their  displeasure.    Do  not  allow  him  eat  un 
ripe  fruit. 

Rule  XVI.  Note.  —  Elements  may  be  dissimilar  in  the  same- 
respects  as  they  are  similar,  (see  note,  p.  178  ;)  as,  "  I  suspected 
that  sleep  had  robbed  me  of  some  part  of  my  being."  The  two 
elements  connected  are  suspected,  and  "  sleep  had  robbed  me,  &c. ;  "' 
the  first  is  a  principal  element,  (pp.  120, 121,)  of  the  first  class,  (i.  e 
a  single  word,)  and,  in  its  nature,  a  verb  ;  —  the  second  is  Sisubordi 
nate  element  (p.  121,)  of  the  third  class,  (i.  e.  a  subordinate  propo 
sition)  and,  in  its  nature,  a  noun.  The  principal  errors  occur  in* 
using  the  wrong  connective. 

My  mother  said  how  she  could  not  let  me  come  to  school  yes 
terday.    I  do  not  know  but  what  I  can  do  it.   It  will  be  according- 
as  how  you  do  it.    I  doubt  if  I  can  be  present  to-morrow.    He- 
knew  not  whither  *  he  should  go. 

*  It  is  to  be  regretted  that  whither,  which  appropriately  denote* 
tendency  to  a  place,  should  give  place  to  where  used  to  denote 
motion  or  rest  in  a  place. 


180  FIRST   LESSONS 

Rule  X7H.     We  may  commit  an  error,  — 

(1.)  By  using  the  r?rong  Relative. 

I  saw  the  boy  which  (see  p.  38.)  brought  the  basket.  The 
dogs  whq  chased  the  fox  have  all  returned. 

(2.)  By  putting  it  in  the  wrong  person  or  number. 

0,  thou  who  is  thy  people's  friend.  One  who  are  faithful,  is 
better  than  two  who  is  unfaithful. 

Rule  XVIII.  Me  being  young,  they  deceived  me.  .Them 
having  finished  their  business,  we  left.  I  am  not  sure  of  its  being 
him.    Its  being  them  caused  all  the  difficulty. 

PROMISCUOUS  EXAMPLES. 
My  composition  is  wrote,  but  it  a  n't  wrote  good.  May  I  set 
side  some  one  who  has  got  an  inkstand  ?  My  hat  has  fell  out  of 
the  window,  may  some  one  went  down  and  get  it.  John  Smith 
has  went  and  took  his  wrong  seat.  I  do  n't  like  those  kind  of 
copies.  I  like  to  have  fell  down  stairs.  Are  you  ready  ?  Yes, 
sir,  we  be.  Every  one  should  mind  their  own  business.  The 
steamboat  bursted  her  boiler.  I  had  rather  not  answer  that 
question.  Have  you  heard  who  they  invited  ?  It  was  the  beau 
tifullest  (see  p.  49.)  sight  I  ever  see. 

Correct  the  following  sentences  in  all  respects:  — 
When  i  first  come  to  school,  i  laid  down  my  books ;  on  the 
desk  where  Charles  sets  !     We  sot  by  the  window  one  evening  to 
see  the  sun  sit  but  a  cloud  was  laying  in  the  horizon  so  that  we 
give  it  up  ? 

My  mother  says  how  you  may  learn  me  grammar  if  you  're  a 
mind  to,  but  she  ca  n't  see  no  good  it  will  do  me  she  says  I  a  n't 
a  goin'  to  be  a  minister  nor  a  lawyer  nor  a  doctor  — 

How  many  Rules  for  the  subject  of  a  proposition  ?  Repeat  it. 
How  many  Rules  for  the  predicate  ?  Repeat  them.  How  many 
Rules  for  the  adjective  element  ?  Repeat  them.  How  many 
Rules  for  the  objective  element  ?  Repeat  it.  How  many  Rules 
for  the  adverbial  element  ?  Repeat  it.  Repeat  the  Rule  for  the 
interjection  and  case  independent.  How  many  Rules  for  connec 
tives  and  the  words  associated  with  them  ?  Repeat  them.  Re 
yeat  the  Rules  for  abridged  propositions. 


IN   GRAMMAR. 


181 


LESSON    XLVIII. 


VARIOUS     PECULIARITIES     AND     IDIOMS. 

I.  IN   THE   CLASSIFICATION   OP   WORDS. 
Wi»at  is    (1.)  An   interrogative  pronoun;    as,"  Wliat   do  you 

see  ?  " 
(2.)  A  compound  relative;   as,  "  He  received  what  he 

wanted." 
(3.)  An  interjection  ;  as,  "  What  !  Have  you  come  ?" 
(4.)    A  limiting  adjective;   as,  "He    gave   me  what 

books  I  needed." 
That  is     (1.)  A  subordinate  conjunction  ;  as,  "  I  know  that  he  is 

faithful." 
(2.)  A  relative  pronoun  ;  as,  "  An  idler  is  a  watch  thai 

(which)  wants  both  hands." 
(3.)  A  limiting  adjective  ;  as,  "  That  book  is  soiled." 
As  is  (1.)  Part  of  a  compound  preposition;  as,  "As  to  that, 

said  the  pendulum." 
(2.)  A  subordinate  connective,  when  it  denotes, 

(a)  Manner  ;  as,  "  Speak  as  you  think." 

(b)  Comparison  of  equality;  as,  "He  is  as  large  as 
his  brother." 

(c)  Time  ;  as,  "  I  arrived  as  (when)  he  was  taking 
his  leave." 

(d)  Cause  or  reason ;  as,  "As  (since)  a  youth  was 
their  leader,  what  could  they  do  ?  " 

(e)  Correspondence  ;  as,  "  As  the  door  turneth  on 
its  hinges,  so  doth  the  slothful  man  upon  his 
bed." 

Note.  —Besides  the  above  uses,  it  takes  the  place  of  the  rela- 
tive pronoun  (though  never  properly  a  relative)  after  such,  same 
and  many  ;  as,  "  Such  as  I  have,  give  I  unto  thee." 

(3.)  A  mere  index  of  apposition,  or  of  a  peculiar  rela 
tion  of  some  property  to  its  object ;  as,  "  The 
moon  as  satellite  attends;"    "They  regarded 
him  as  innocent." 
16 


182  FIRST   LESSONS 

But  is        (1.)  A  coordinate  conjunction;  as,  u  He  is  not  sick,  but 
faint." 
(2.)  A  preposition;   as,  "They  gave  him  all  but  (ex- 
cept) one." 
(3.)  An  adverb  ;  as,  "  We  saw  him  but  (only)  twice." 
Much  is     (1)  A  noun;    as,  "Where  much  is    given,  much  is 
required." 
(2.)  An  adjective  ;  as,  "  Much  ado  is  made." 
(3.)  An  adverb;  as,  " I  was  much  pleased  with  the 
visit." 
For  is        (1.)  A  subordinate  connective  ;  as,  "  The  battle  ceased 
along  the  plain,  for  the  bard  had  sung  the  song 
of  peace." 
(2.)  A  preposition  ;  as,  "  The  soldier  fought  for  glory." 
Note.  —  The  same  is  true  of  after,  before,  since,  till,  until,  &c. 
When  is    (1.)   An   interrogative  adverb;  as,  "  When  did  you 
arrive  ?  " 
(2.)  A  subordinate  connective  ;  as,  "  When  sinners  en- 
tice thee,  consent  thou  not." 

Note.  —  The  same  is  true  of  all  the  interrogatives  ;  as,  where, 
why,  how,  &c,  &c. 

EXERCISE. 

Parse  the  following  words :  — 

What !  Have  you  but  one  book  for  me  ?  I  knew  that  that  was 
the  tree  that  was  girdled.  As  you  have  what  you  will  need  for 
the  present,  I  shall  give  much  of  what  remains  to  your  sister  as  a 
reward.  All  but  three  of  these  rivers  are  navigable ;  but  you 
must  recollect  I  shall  tell  you  this  but  once ;  for  it  is  unpleasant 
to  repeat. 

IT.      IN   THE   FORM,   CONSTRUCTION,   AND   APPLICATION 

OF   WORDS. 

These  peculiarities  are  called  figures.  A  figure  is  a  deviation 
from  the  ordinary  form,  construction,  and  application  of  a  word, 
Hence  figures  are  divided  into  those  of  Etymology,  Syntaxy  <*n<i 
Rhetoric. 


liST    GRAMMAR.  183 

FIGURES    OF    ETYMOLOGY. 

A  figure  of  Etymology  is  a  deviation  from  the  ordinary 
form  of  a  word. 

Figures  of  Etymology  consist  either  in  a  defect,  an  excess,  or  a 
change,  in  some  of  the  elements  of  a  word. 

Aphceresis  cuts  off  a  letter  or  syllable  from  the  beginning 
of  a  word  ;  as,  'gainst,  'gan,  for  against,  began. 

Syncope  removes  a  letter  or  syllable  from  the  middle  of  a 
word  ;  as,  o'er,  e'er,  lov'd,  for  over,  ever,  loved. 

Apocope  cuts  off  a  letter  or  syllable  from  the  end  of  a 
word  ;  as,  th',  iho',  for  the,  though. 

Prosthesis  adds  a  letter  or  syllable  to  the  beginning  of  a 
word  ;  as,  adown,  enchain,  for  down,  chain. 

Epenthesis  adds  a  letter  or  syllable  to  the  middle  of  a 
word  ;  as,  preventative,  retractation,  for  preventive,  retrac- 
tion.    This  figure  seldom  occurs  in  English. 

Paragoge  adds  a  letter  or  syllable  to  the  end  of  a  word  ; 
as,  withoutew,  bounden,  for  without,  bound. 

Synceresis  contracts  two  syllables  into  one  ;  as,  thou  7rt, 
V  &,  for  thou  art,  it  is. 

Diceresis  separates  two  vowels  which  otherwise  might 
form  a  diphthong  ;  as,  coordinate,  zoology. 

Tmesis  separates  a  compound  word  by  inserting  a  word 
between  its  parts  ;  as,  to  us  ward,  for  toward  us. 

EXERCISE. 

Point  out  the  figures  %n  the  following  examples : — 
"  Around  ''gan  Marmion  wildly  stare." 

"  The  lamps  shone  o'er  fair  women  and  brave  men." 


184  FIRST   LESSONS 

"  Did  ye  not  hear  it  ?  No :  H  was  but  the  wind.' 

"  ■  Tis  mine  to  teach  titf  inactive  hand  to  reap 
Kind  nature's  bounties,  o'er  the  globe  diffused.* 

Oh!   What's  the  matter  ?   Wliat  's  the  matter  ? 
What  is  H  that  ails  young  Harry  Gill  ? 

A  heart  has  throWd  beneath  that  leathern  breast. 
And  tears  adown  that  dusky  cheek  have  rolled. 

He  led,  I  wot,  the  softest  way  to  death, 

And  taught  wiihouten  pain  and  strife  to  yield  the  breath. 

Scan  the  following  lines  and  correct  the  feet  by  using  any  of  the 
above  figures  :  — 

It  is  the  sunset  of  life  gives  me  mystical  lore. 

For  we  have  sworn,  by  our  countries  assaulters, 
By  the  virgins  they  have  dragged  from  our  altars. 

And  every  tempest  howling  over  his  head 
Benders  the  savage  wilderness  more  wild. 

FIGURES   OF    SYNTAX. 

A  figure  of  Syntax  is  a  deviation  from  the  ordinary  con- 
struction of  a  word. 

Figures  of  Syntax,  consist  in  a  defect,  an  excess,  or  a  change 
in  some  of  the  elements  of  a  sentence. 

Ellipsis  is  the  omission  of  a  word,  phrase,  or  clause,  which 
is  necessary  to  complete  the  construction  ;  as,  "  We  were 
absent  [during]  one  day." 

It  should  be  understood  that  the  words  omitted  by  this  figure, 
as  truly  belong  to  the  sentence,  grammatically  considered,  as  those 
which  are  expressed.  They  are  omitted  for  rhetorical  effect,  that 
is,  to  render  the  sentence  more  agreeable  and  forcible. 

Ellipsis  generally  takes  place  ;  — 


IN   GRAMMAR.  185 

1.  In  coordinate  constructions,  to  avoid  the  repetition  of 
some  common  part ;  as,  — 

"  There  are  some  who  write,  [and  who]  talk,  [and  who]  think 
so  much  about  vice  and  [about]  virtue,  that  they  have  no  time  to 
practice  either  the  one  or  the  other." 

2.,  In  certain  subordinate  constructions,  especially  those 
which  denote  comparison,  for  the  same  reason  ;  as,  — 

"  Revenge  is  a  stronger  feeling  than  gratitude  "  [is  ;]  "  Our 
minds  are  as  different  as  our  faces"  [are.] 

3.  In  certain  idiomatic  constructions ; 

(1.)  In  elements  of  the  Jirst  class;  —  The  subject  of  imperative 
sentences  ;  as,  "  Go  "  [thou,]  w  Awake  "  [ye  ;]  —  The  noun  after 
adjectives  or  after  the  possessive  case ;  as,  "  The  violent  [persons] 
take  it  by  force  ;  "  "  This  book  is  mine, "  i.  e.  my  book. 

(2.)  In  elements  of  the  second  class  ; —  The  connective  maybe 
omitted.  Examples.  The  to  before  the  indirect  object ;  as,  "  He 
gave  [to]  me  a  book  ; "  —  The  to  of  the  infinitive  after  bid,  dare, 
lei,  maJce,  hear,  need,  feel,  see.  To  or  unto  after  like,  near ;  as,  like 
[to]  his  father,  near  [to]  the  house ;  — During,  over,  for,  in,  or  on, 
before  nouns,  denoting  time,  the  measure  of  distance,  magnitude,  or 
excess  ;  as,  "  They  left  [on]  Monday  ; "  "  They  travelled  [through] 
twenty  miles." 

The  object  may  be  omitted  ;  as,  "  The  leaves  were  scattered 
around  "  [us.]  In  such  cases,  the  preposition  is  usually  called  an 
adverb. 

(3.)  In  elements  of  the  third  class  ;  —  The  connective  may  be 
omitted,  — In  substantive  clauses  in  the  objective  ;  as,  "  My  hoart 
whispers  [that]  God  is  nigh;" — In  adjective  clauses  when  the 
relative  is  in  the  objective  ;  as,  "  The  paper  [which]  we  purchased 
is  damaged  ; "  "  The  house  [which]  we  went  to,  stands  on  a  hill." 

The  subject  and  copula  in  expressions  like  "  If  [it  is]  possible, 
if  necessary,  if  convenient,  when  agreeable,  while  absent,  &c. 

The  whole  clause  between  as  and  if,  as  and  though;  as, "He 
geemed  as  [he  would  seem]  if  [he  were]  deranged." 

4.  In  exclamatory  sentences,  in  responsives,  in  inscriptions, 
16* 


186  FIRST   LESSONS 

and  titles;  as,  [It  is]  Strange  f  "Whom  did  you  see?" 
[I  saw]  George.     [This  is]  The  New  Testament. 

Pleonasm  is  the  use  of  superfluous  words ;  as,  "  I  know 
Viee  who  thou  art." 

Pleonasm  is  the  opposite  of  Ellipsis  and  may  be  said,  in  gen  , 
oral,  to  take  place  where  ellipsis  should,  but  does  not  take  place. 

Pleonasm  takes  place, 

(1.)  When  the  same  idea  is  repeated  in  the  same  or  in  different 
words  ;  as,  "  Verily,  verily,  I  say  unto  you ;  "  "  All  ye  inhabitants 
of  the  world,  and  dwellers  on  the  earth.'''' 

(2.)  When  a  noun  is  introduced  into  a  sentence  and  then  im 
mediately  represented  in  the  same  relation  by  a  pronoun  ;  as, 
"  Now  Harry  he  had  long  suspected." 

(3.)  When  a  noun  or  any  other  word  is  repeated  in  the  same 
relation  for  the  purpose  of  modifying  it ;  as,  "  That  great  God 
whom  you  see  me  daily  worship  ;  —  *  —  * —  that  GWwho  cre- 
ated the  heavens  and  the  earth  ; *  —  *  —  this  God  who  has 

done  all  these  great  things  —  *  —  *  —  this  great  God,  the  creator 
of  worlds,  of  angels,  and  men,  is  your  Father  and  Friend." 

Enallage  is  a  change  of  one  part  of  speech  for  another, 
or  some  modification  of  a  word  for  another  ;  as,  "  They  fall 
successive  [ly]  and  successive  [ly]  rise."  So  when  a  single 
individual  says,  "  We  have  done  so  and  so,"  he  uses  the  plu- 
ral number  for  the  singular. 

Hyperbaton  is  the  transposition  of  words  ;  as,  "  "While  its 
song  rolls  the  woods  along." 

EXERCISE. 

Supply  the  words  omitted  by  ellipsis  in  the  following  :  — 

Cassius.    1  am  a  soldier,  I, 

Older  in  practice,  abler  than  yourself 
To  make  conditions. 
Brutus.     Go  to  !  you  're  not,  Cassius. 
Cas.  I  am. 

Bru.         I  say  you  are  not.  ^ 


IN    GRAMMAR.  187 

Write  or  repeat  the  following,  leaving  out  all  words  which  may  be 
omitted :  — 

If  it  is  possible,  I  will  come.  What  would  be  the  consequence 
though  we  tarry  ? 

Tell  what  figures  occur  in  the  following  examples :  — 

Anxiously  did  we  watch  every  movement.    Bark  burned  the 

candle.    For  Renard  close  attended  at  his  heels.     Sometimes  with 

early  morn,  he  mounted  gay.    Seven  circling  planets  we  behold. 

He  speaks  as  if  he  were  sick.    Say,  burst  they  borrowed  from  her 

father's  wounds,  these  drops  f 

FIGURES   OF   RHETORIC. 

A  figure  of  Rhetoric  is  a  deviation  from  the  ordinary 
application  of  a  word ;  it  is  commonly  called  a  trope. 

Metaphor  gives  to  an  object  the  appropriate  name  of 
another  object,  on  account  of  a  resemblance  between  them ; 
as,  "  Man  !  Thou  pendulum  betwixt  a  smile  and  tear." 

Simile  is  a  formal  comparison,  introduced  by  like,  as,  or 
so  ;  as,  "  He  shall  be  like  a  tree  planted  by  the  rivers  of 
water." 

An  Allegory  is  a  continued  metaphor,  forming  a  kind  of 
parable  or  fable.  For  examples,  see  Pilgrim's  Progress. 
See  also  the  eightieth  Psalm. 

Personification  attributes  to  inanimate  objects  some  of 
the  qualities  of  living  beings  ;  as,  "  The  sky  saddens  with 
the  gathered  storm." 

Metonomy  is  a  change  of  name  ;  as,  "  You  will  address 
the  chair,  i.  e.,  the  president." 

Vision  represents  imaginary  objects  as  real  and  present 
to  the  senses ;  as, 

"  See  lofty  Lebanon  his  head  advance, 

See  nodding  forests  on  the  mountains  dance." 


188  FIRST    LESSONS 

Synecdoche  is  the  use  of  a  part  for  the  whole,  or  the  whole 
for  a  part ;  as,  A  sail  for  a  skip,  a  roof  for  a  house,  the  head 
for  the  person. 

Irony  is  the  use  of  a  word  for  its  opposite ;  as,  "  He  was 
as  virtuous  as  Nero,"  i.  e.  as  vile  as  Nero. 

Antithesis  is  the  placing  of  contrary  or  opposite  objects  in 
contrast ;  as,  "  Immortal  though  no  more,  though  fallen 
great** 

Hyperbole  magnifies  or  diminishes  an  object  beyond  the 
truth  ;  as,  "  Rivers  of  water  run  down  mine  eyes,  because 
they  keep  not  thy  law." 

Exclamation  is  used  to  express  some  strong  emotion  of 
the  mind  ;  as,  "  O,  the  depth  of  the  riches  both  of  the  wis- 
dom and  the  knowledge  of  God ! " 

Interrogation  is  used  to  express  a  strong  affirmation  under 
the  form  of  a  question ;  as,  "  Hath  he  said  it  ?  and  will  he 
not  doit?" 

Apostrophe  is  a  turning  off  from  the  subject  to  address 
some  other  person  or  thing  ;  as,  "  Death  is  swallowed  up  in 
victory.  O,  death  where  is  thy  sting  ?  O,  grave  where  is 
thy  victory  ?  " 

Climax  is  a  series  of  members  in  a  sentence,  each  rising 
in  importance  above  the  preceding. 

EXAMPLE. 

"  What  hope  is  there  remaining  of  liberty,  if  whatever  is  their 
pleasure,  it  is  lawful  for  them  to  do  ;  if  whatever  it  is  lawful  for 
them  to  do,  they  are  able  to  do  ;  if  what  they  are  able  to  do,  they 
dare  to  do  ;  if  what  they  dare  to  do,  they  really  execute  ;  and  if 
what  they  execute  is  no  way  offensive  to  you  ?  " 


IN   GRAMMAR.  189 

EXERCISE. 

Point  out  the  figures  in  the  following :  — 

"  Yet  at  thy  call  the  hardy  tar  pursued, 
Pale,  but  intrepid ;  sad,  but  unsubdued.'''' 

He  has  at  last  assumed  the  sceptre.  The  power  of  appointment 
is  vested  in  the  crown.  The  garrison  was  put  to  the  sword.  In 
the  sweat  of  thy  face  shalt  thou  eat  thy  bread.  The  sea  saw  it  and 
fled.  Joseph  is  a  fruitful  bough.  Devotion  is  a  delicate  and  ten 
der  plant.  A  virtuous  man,  slandered  by  evil  tongues,  is  like  a 
diamond  obscured  by  smoke.  I  will  be  to  her  a  wall  of  fire. 
What  ailed  thee,  0,  thou  sea,  that  thou  Jleddest  f  They  are  swifter 
than  eagles  ;  they  are  stronger  than  lions.  Read  I.  Kings,  xviii,  27, 
and  explain  the  figure.  Canst  thou  by  searching,  find  out  God  ? 
Canst  thou  find  out  the  Almighty  unto  perfection  ?  What  a 
piece  of  work  is  man  !  how  noble  in  reason  !  how  infinite  in  fac- 
ulties !  in  action,  how  like  an  angel  !  in  apprehension,  how  like  a 
God. 

III.      IN   IDIOMATIC   CONSTRUCTIONS. 

Note.  —  The  following  specimens  are  intended  to  draw  the  at- 
tention of  the  teacher  to  the  various  idiomatic  peculiarities  in  the 
constructions  which  follow  certain  words  or  forms  of  words,  and 
not  to  be  a  complete  system  which  exhausts  the  subject. 

1.  The  Relative  tenses  (sometimes  the  progressive  form 
of  the  Absolute  tenses)  are  generally  followed  by  some 
phrase  or  clause  used  to  specify  the  time  to  which  they 
relate  ;  as,  "  I  had  finished  my  letter  before  you  came" 

2.  The  comparative  degree  is  followed : — 

(1.)  By  an  adverbial  clause  introduced  by  than,  when 
both  the  compared  objects  are  distinctly  named  ;  as,  "  The 
ash  is  taller  than  the  oak  "  [is.] 

(2.)  By  a  phrase  (preposition  of)  when  one  of  the  com- 
pared objects  is  distinctly  named  and  the  other  is  involved 
in  a  general  term  which  includes  both  ;  as,  "  The  ash  is  the 
taller  of  the  two  trees." 


190  FIRST   LESSONS 

3.  The  superlative  degree  is  followed  by  a  phrase  (prep. 
of,)  and  shows  a  comparison  between  a  single  object  dis- 
tinctly named,  and  all  other  objects  with  which  it  is  com- 
pared ;  as,  "  Achilles  was  the  bravest  of  the  Greeks." 

4.  Many  adjectives,  as  able,  unable,  —  necessary,  un- 
necessary, —  desirable,  undesirable,  —  agreeable,  disagree- 
able, &c,  &c,  are  followed  by  an  infinitive  or  a  preposition 
and  its  object,  when  in  the  positive  degree.  Wnen  in  the 
comparative  or  superlative,  they  are  also  followed  by  the 
construction  required  by  the  above  rules,  (3  and  4,  above;) 
as,  "  George  was  unwilling  to  write  ;"  u  George  was  more 
unwilling  to  write,  than  his  sister." 

5.  The  verb  "  to  be  "  when  used  to  predicate  existence 
(and  not  as  a  copula)  is  generally  preceded  by  the  exple- 
tive "  there  "  and  followed  by  its  subject ;  as,  "  There  was 
light."  When  such  a  proposition  is  abridged  the  expletive 
remains  ;  as,  "  God  said  let  there  be  light ;"  "  There  being 
no  provisions,  we  were  compelled  to  leave  ; "  "I  am  not 
sure  of  there  being  a  supply." 

6.  The  verbs  tell,  teach,  say,  wish,  declare,  order,  and,  in 
general,  those  which  denote  some  state  or  act  of  the  mind, 
or  some  declaration  or  statement  are  generally  followed, 

(1.)  By  a  substantive  clause  ;  as,  "  I  say,  that  he  ivas 
angry." 

(2.)  By  a  personal  object  and  an  infinitive,  which  together 
are  equivalent  to  a  substantive  clause  abridged,  having  its 
subject  retained  according  to  Rule  I.,  Note  2,  (3,)  p.  94. 

IY.   IN  THE  STRUCTURE  OF  SENTENCES. 

All  sentences  containing  more  than  one  proposition  are 
either  loose  or  compact 


IN    GRAMMAR.  191 

A  loose  sentence  is  one  in  which  the  parts  are  related  in 
thought,  but  not  in  construction  ;  as,  "  Three  days  they 
mourned  over  Carthon :  on  the  fourth,  his  father  died." 

A  compact  sentence  is  one  in  which  the  parts  are  closely 
united  both  in  thought  and  construction  ;  as,  "  Though  he 
Btay  me,  yet  will  I  trust  in  him." 

A  sentence  is  said  to  oe  transformed,  when  its  structure 
is  changed  without  materially  altering  its  meaning. 

Transformation  takes  place,  — 

1.  When  a  compound  sentence  is  changed  to  a  complex. 
This  is  done  by  sinking  one  of  the  coordinate  clauses  to  a 
subordinate  rank  ;  as,  "  Be  obliging  to  others,  and  you  will 
secure  their  friendship,"  =  If  you  are  obliging  to  others,  you 
will  secure  their  friendship. 

2.  When  a  complex  sentence  is  changed  to  a  compound. 
This  is  done  by  raising  a  subordinate  clause  to  a  principal 
one  ;  as,  "  You  should  honor  your  parents,  becausedhey  have 
watched  over  your  infancy,"  =="  Your  parents  have  watched 
over  your  infancy,  and,  therefore,  you  should  honor  them." 

3.  When  a  complex  sentence  is  changed  to  a  simple.  This 
is  done  by  abridging  its  subordinate  clause  ;  as,  "  The  man 
who  is  well  bred  desires  only  that  he  may  please,"  =  "  The 
well-bred  man  desires  only  that  he  may  please,"  =  The  well 
bred  man  desires  only  to  please. 

4.  When  a  simple  sentence  is  changed  to  a  complex. 
This  is  done  by  expanding  one  of  its  elements  into  a  propo- 
sition ;  as,  "  Socrates  taught  the  immortality  of  the  soul"  -•>* 
"  Socrates  taught  that  the  soul  is  immortal"  (See  exercises, 
pp.  144,  147.) 

Note. —  It  will  be  seen,  at  once,  that  a  compound  sentence  mny 
first  be  reduced  to  a  complex,  by  Rule  1.,  and  then  to  a  sirr  pie,  by 


192  FIRST    LESSONS   IN   GRAMMAR. 

Rule  3.  So  also  a  simple  sentence  may  be  first  changed  to  a  com- 
plex, by  Rule  4,  and  then  to  a  compound,  by  Rule  2.  The  teacher 
should  frequently  exercise  his  pupils  in  all  the  various  transforma- 
tions, especially  in  those  of  abridging  and  restoring  subordinate 
clauses.  Good"  examples  occur  in  almost  every  sentence  of  their 
ordinary  reading  lessons. 

How  many  parts  of  speech  may  what  be  ?  That  ?  As?  But  t 
Much  f  For,  after,  before,  since,  till,  until,  ere,  notwithstanding  ? 
When,  why,  how,  &c.  ?  What  is  a  figure  ?  How  are  they  divided  ? 
What  is  a  figure  of  etymology  ?  In  what  do  they  consist  ?  What 
is  Aphseresis  ?  Syncope  ?  Apocope  ?  Prosthesis  ?  Epenthe- 
sis  ?  Paragoge  ?  Diaeresis  ?  Tmesis  ?  What  is  a  figure  of  Syn- 
tax ?  In  what  do  they  consist  ?  What  is  Ellipsis  ?  In  what  con 
structions  does  it  take  place  ?  What  is  Pleonasm  ?  When  does 
it  take  place  ?  What  is  Enallage  ?  What  is  Hyperbaton  ?  What 
is  a  figure  of  Rhetoric  ?  What  is  it  commonly  called  ?  What 
is  a  Metaphor  ?  A  Simile  ?  An  Allegory  ?  Personification  ? 
Metonomy  ?  Vision  ?  Synecdoche  ?  Irony  ?  Antithesis  ?  Hy- 
perbole ?  Exclamation  ?  Interrogation  ?  Apostrophe  ?  Climax  ? 
What  constructions  follow  the  Relative  tenses  ?  The  Comparative 
degree  ?  •  The  Superlative  degree  ?  The  Adjectives  able,  una- 
ble, Sec.  ?  There  ?  The  verbs  tell,  teach,  &c.  ?  How  are  sentences 
divided  ?  What  is  a  loose  sentence  ?  A  compact  ?  When  is  a 
sentence  said  to  be  transformed  ?  When  does  transformation  take 
place  ? 


THE  JLSTD. 


N( 


YX  0034  £ 


MITCHELL'S  \1IEHICAN  SYSTEM 

or 

STANDARD   SCHOOL   GEOGPwAPHY, 

IN   A    - 

pied  to  the  }  of  K-      \ 

MITCHELL'S  PRIMARY  6  KAPHY,  c mta  nin?P       Ln- 

■    '      -      -  -   ■  ■       -  -  •■■■.. 

MITCHELL'S  INTERMEIM  ATK  (GEOGRAPHY,  in  one  quarto 

cises,  illustrations,  and  th ;  oem- 

■  - 

ITCHELL'S   SCHO  )L  ^KO(iRAPHY.   u    rnp^ied  with 


i  clear  and  uis- 


MITCHELL'S  ANCIENT  GEOGRAPHY  AND  ATLAS,   An 

embellished  with  Engravings  of  itemnrkubie  Events, 
Ancient  Atlas  of  twelve  beautifully 

MITCHELL'S  BIBLICAL  AND  SUNDAY  &CHOOL  ^O- 
GRAPHYj  with  Maps  and  Embellishments.  .     «* 
SWAN'S  SCHOOL  READERS   AND  SPELLING  BOOK. 

■  rapiWy  going  into  6se  m  the  b'--  s    >f  our  county    They 

have  already  been  1 ege,  and  into  the  Pc  >  !s  of  Boston"f  Roxr 

Louis,  Vicks       -   a;id  nia^.v  other  cities  and  towns; 
GREEN'S  FIRST  LESSONS  IN  O&AMMAR. 
GREEN'S  ANALYSIS;  A  Treatise  on  the  Structure  of  the  English 

Language,  adapted  to  Schools.    These  Grammars  are  highly  appreciated  „by  our  best  teachers? 
into  the'Seuools  of  Boston,  Baltimore,  Cincinnati,  St.  Louis,  and 

FROST'S  UNITED  STATES.— History  of  the  United  States  ;  for 

j  the  use  of  Schools  and  A', ;  ]  ,.       Illustrated  with  forty  Engravings. 

HISTORY  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES,  FOR  THE  USE  OF 
.COMMON  SCHOOLS.  — By   John   Frost,    Author  of  History  of  the 

Is  ond  Academies :  c  .  <  ;;n  the  Author's  larger 

|     FROST'S    AMERICAN    SPEAKER— The   A mericaq,. Speaker. 

>cution.  ahran  extensi^HBRction  of  Specimens  oT 

-.Eloquence.     Embellished  with  i       .<•■■■      PortffpB"  of  distinguished  Ante- 

■  '    ■        . 

|     PINNOCK'S  ENGLAND.— Pinnock's  improved  edition  of  ft&Goldsmith's 

England,  from  the  Invasion  of  Julius  Caesar  to  the  -         lilalffated  with^3t 

:     PINNOCK'S  GREECE.— Pinnock's  im proved  -edition  of  Dr.  Goldsmith'! 
r  Examination  at  the,  end  of  each  Section :  with  3u  En- 

PINNOCK'S  RG3IE.— Pinnocks  .   iproved  edition  of  Dr.  Goldsmith's  rfte- 

.  Secti  on ;  with  30  Ensravings, 


f\XOCK»S  FRANCE. 


~r— 


THOMAS,  COWPERTHWAIT  &  ($., 
BOOKSELLERS   A;N£   PUBLISHERS, 

253  MARKET  STREET,-  PHILADELPHIA,  * 

/  knowledge* 
■supply  of  School  Bo'okiy  of i\  \  md  of  others, 

I  nusually  great;  and  they  are  prepared,  at  •  .  to  supply 

Lawyers, 

and  others,  on  J. 

VALUABLE  PlTBMCA  ING    ?CHOOL   BoOiS  :— 


Eft* 


